University of Kentucky (maabne0@pop.uky.edu)

A previous study of Gambusia p. puncticulata (Caribbean gambusia) populations throughout the Cayman Islands showed spatio-temporal variability in both abiotic (e.g., rainfall, submerged aquatic vegetation, salinity) and biotic conditions (e.g., inter- and intraspecific competition, parasitism and predation) and resulting phenotypic plasticity in reproductive traits such as the degree of maternal provisioning, number of embryos per brood, mean individual weight of embryos, reproductive allotment and size at maturity. Overall, August 1996 samples, collected in a rainy period, represented expanding populations with minimum size at maturity, reproductive effort concentrated early in life and large broods with smaller embryos. January 1997 samples, collected in a dry period, represented stable populations with late maturity, smaller reproductive efforts and smaller broods with larger embryos. Additionally, considerable differences in reproductive traits were seen among ponds in both seasons. Additional collections of Caribbean gambusia were made from the Cayman Islands in June 1997 and August 1999 to further address the degree of phenotypic plasticity in the following reproductive traits: (1) degree of superfetation; (2) degree of maternal provisioning; (3) number of embryos per brood; (4) mean individual weight of embryos; (5) reproductive allotment; and (6) size at maturity. Results further supported the high degree of spatio-temporal variability in habitat conditions and the resulting phenotypic plasticity in reproductive traits found in populations of Caribbean gambusia throughout the Cayman Islands. (Sexual Selection; Sun. 5:30pm-5:45pm; NMM2)

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University of Louisiana (joe@cajunfun.com)

In recent years there have been growing concerns and objections to various aspects of sexual selection in plants. Three experiments were performed examining sexual selection in corolla size dimorphisms, as this dimorphism was the topic that first initiated discussions of sexual selection in plants. The first experiment tested conflicting predictions of sexual selection and optimality theory: although larger male flowers would be benefited by attracting more pollinators, pollinators should make foraging decisions based upon caloric rewards, not appearances. The second experiment examined a "sequence" hypothesis posed by Müller in the 19th century, that pollinators tend to visit larger male corollas first, and smaller female corollas after, thereby promoting effective pollination. The third experiment tested modern observations that, although pollinators prefer larger corollas very early in the morning, those preferences quickly decay, which support Müller but not sexual selection. In all three experiments, the evidence supported concepts of natural selection, but not those of sexual selection. (Sexual Selection; Sun. 4:30pm-4:45pm; NMM2)

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Armstrong Atlantic State University (psychedatuf@hotmail.com)

There is considerable variance in body size of sexually mature male mosquitofish. We investigated female mosquitofish preferences for larger males versus smaller males. The apparatus was an aquarium (76x32x31 cm) divided into thirds. Each end-third was subdivided into a top and bottom half. Small stimulus tanks were centered in the upper end-thirds. Females were placed in the apparatus for a 15 minute adaptation period. A male was then placed in each stimulus tank for the 15 minute preference test. Nose bouts (female snout in contact with stimulus tanks) and frequency and duration of entries into each end-third and upper end-third were recorded. In Experiment 1, 11 females chose between large and small males. Although no significant preferences were detected, females spent more time with larger males on all measures. In Experiment 2, the sample size was 26, and 13 females were deprived of contact with males for 30 days. Females did show a significant preference for larger males, but male deprivation had no effect on preferences. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Colorado (adamsonj@ucsub.colorado.edu)

In Lark Sparrows Chondestes grammacus, as in many songbirds, males nest monogamously and provide parental care. To explore this, a two-stage game theory model with a mating stage and a parental stage was used to describe a single encounter between breeding individuals during a breeding season. The decisions in the mating stage are independent of the parental stage, but the total fitness increment depends on the parental stage. During the mating stage males can mate exclusively, with a single female, or inclusively, with multiple females. All males provide the same amount of direct benefits to females, which will either be used by one female or shared by many on the same territory. Female strategies in this stage are: produce an amount of young conditioned upon the male’s strategy or produce a constant amount of young regardless of male strategy. In the parental stage both males and females can either care for or desert the young. An Evolutionary Stable Set exists consisting of conditional female reproductive output, exclusive male breeding during the mating stage and biparental care. Thus, under conditions of uniform resource distribution, male provisioning and conditional female investment we should expect monogamous mating and biparental care to develop. (Mate Choice 3; Mon. 2:45pm-3:00pm; NMM1)

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Duke University (alberts@duke.edu)

A well-documented sex bias occurs in birds and mammals, such that birds exhibit predominantly female-biased dispersal and mammals exhibit predominantly male-biased dispersal. This observation has caused much speculation about the potential causes of the sex bias. The importance of inbreeding avoidance is widely accepted. However, while the tendency to avoid inbreeding may result in sex-biased dispersal, inbreeding avoidance alone does not successfully predict which sex will disperse. Competition for resources and competition for mates are often invoked as determinants of dispersal, and there is a growing acknowledgement that dispersal will typically have multiple causes in any one species. We propose a general ESS model that describes the evolution of sex-biased dispersal in terms of a fixed set of variables that take on different values in different systems, but which in sum can predict the direction of the sex bias in dispersal. Variables include but are not limited to inbreeding costs, dispersal costs, competition for mates, and competition for resources other than mates. The goal is to provide a general framework for understanding diverse dispersal patterns across species. The model builds on, formalizes and quantifies the verbal arguments that have been made since Greenwood's 1980 paper. (Dispersal Symposium; Sun. 2:45pm-3:00pm; Sale)

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Sacred Heart University & Towson University (albrechd@sacredheart.edu)

In a Wyoming population of House Wrens, secondary females typically receive no male parental assistance and produce female-biased offspring sex ratios as predicted by the Trivers-Willard hypothesis. However, before this hypothesis can be supported, it assumptions must be evaluated. The Trivers-Willard explanation assumes that variation in quality of parental care provided to nestlings has effects that last into their adulthood. I evaluated the appropriateness of this assumption for this study population using a long-term data set to compare the relationship between rearing condition, survival, recruitment, and adult breeding success for individuals fledged from biparental care nests and for individuals fledged from uniparental care nests. Young from uniparental care nests fledge in poorer condition and have lower rates of survival and recruitment than young from biparental care nests. Among nestlings recruited into the breeding population, natal rearing conditions do not influence adult breeding success. Overall, it appears that low quality parental care has lasting effects on the young. Adult females may respond to this by skewing their offspring sex ratios when they breed as secondary females. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Texas - Arlington (camaya@exchange.uta.edu)

The effects of leg autotomy on running speed and foraging ability were examined in two species of wolf spider (Schizocosa ocreata & Varacosa terricola). Both species run more slowly following leg autotomy. However, foraging ability was not affected in either species. Since spiders with one leg autotomized are slower than spiders with all legs intact, they may be more susceptible to increased predation. (Anti-predator Behavior; Tues. 3:45pm-4:00pm; NMM2)

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University of Georgia (wyatt@franklin.uga.edu)

Natural selection is expected to adjust behavior to increase fitness. We experimentally tested this hypothesis with a genetically diverse population of Drosophila pseudoobscura. We measured mate preferences of individuals for two opposite-sexed individuals picked for these experiments without regard to their phenotypic traits. Our simple Amsterdam arena eliminated all within-sex and coercive between-sex interactions that may influence mating decisions in more natural settings. For preferred (P) and nonpreferred (NP) partners, we measured fecundity, egg-to-adult viability of the offspring, and productivity. Fecundity did not differ significantly between P and NP matings. Offspring viability was significantly higher in P than in NP matings in female and male choice trials. Productivity, a measure of overall fitness, was also significantly higher in the preferred matings. These results provide evidence that freely expressed mate choice -- free of within-sex and between-sex coercive interactions -- affects the fitness of offspring. In addition our results are consistent with the hypothesis that variation in offspring viability favors mating discrimination by both females and males. (Mate Choice 2; Sun. 1:45pm-2:00pm; NMM2)

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CBTa 8, Universidad Autonoma de Morelos, UNAM (chamorro@donsun.dti.vaem.mx)

The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the effect of repeated handling or the use of a mask on the stress levels of cattle during restraint. In the first experiment 18 cows were restrained in the chute for 10 min on 19 test-days and blood samples were collected on the first, 10th, and 19th trials. Habituation to handling was reflected by a decreased in cortisol levels as the study advanced (P<0.01). In the second experiment, animals were randomly allotted to two groups, alternating the use of a mask over test days while restraining the cows in the chute. Average respiratory and heart rates tended to decrease when the animals were wearing masks P=0.09 and P<0.01, respectively. Mean cortisol values (P=0.08) and temperament scores (P=0.01) were higher when animals were tested in the control condition (no mask). It was concluded that Brahman cattle: a) habituate to repeated handling in a squeeze chute and b) were less emotionally reactive when their eyes were covered during this process. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of British Columbia & Princeton University (arcese@interchange.ubc.ca)

Song sparrows (Melospiza melodia) on Mandarte Island, B.C., are resident and territorial year-round, and resistance by territory owners to new settlers is the main factor regulating population size from year to year. Moreover, since gaining a territory is a key factor affecting variation in lifetime reproductive success in this population, behavioral traits associated with territory acquisition may be under selection. We used over 12,000 point locations of dispersing sparrows observed during the period from independence to settlement or disappearance from the population to describe more and less successful dispersal tactics. These tactics ranged from the development of local and small home ranges in early-hatched and socially dominant birds, to the maintenance of larger home ranges in later-hatched, subordinant birds. Sub-adults began to settle on territories as early as August in the summer following hatch, and they continued to do so by inserting themselves between established owners, deposing owners or replacing missing owners into the breeding period the following year. Settlement tactics were similar in males and females. Early-hatched birds acquired territories more often than those hatched later and maintained smaller home ranges on average. However, age was a better predictor of success than home range size. Thus, while our results were consistent with the idea that maintaining small home ranges and developing site familiarity increased the chances of settling, experiments to prevent early-hatched birds from developing 'site-dominance' did not reduce the likelihood of settlement. Overall, developmental effects associated with age were the main influence on success in territory acquisition. (Dispersal Symposium; Sun. 11:15 AM - 11:30 AM; Sale)

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Cornell University (dra7@cornell.edu)

I tested the hypothesis that clutch initiation date, an indicator of quality in tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor), would effect tradeoffs between immune response and experimental changes in reproductive effort (brood size manipulations). I immunochallenged breeding females on day 4 of the nestling period with injections of sheep red blood cells (SRBC) and phytohaemagluttinin (PHA-P) and recaptured them 2 and 8 days following injections to record immune response and changes in body mass. Females with experimentally increased brood size had lower production of antibodies to SRBC than did control or brood-reduction females. Females that laid earlier had higher antibody production overall. Most importantly, there a greater decrease in mean antibody production as clutch initiation date grew later in females with increased brood size relative to later-nesting females. This suggests that later-nesting females are less able to deal with increased parental effort than are earlier-nesting females and may be allocating resources away from the immune system. (Immune Systems & Behavior; Weds. 2:30pm-2:45pm; NMM2)

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University of Nebraska - Lincoln (aspbury@unlserve.unl.edu)

Recent attempts to explain the evolution of lek breeding have focused on benefits males may derive from associating with conspecifics. In areas of North America where geographic ranges of the lekking sharp-tailed grouse (Tympanuchus phasianellus) and greater prairie chicken (T. cupido) overlap, mixed-species leks occur regularly. To determine whether males of the two species actively associate (implying benefits to joining heterospecifics), we analyzed how mixed-species leks arise using a 15 year data set from the Valentine National Wildlife Refuge, NE. In this area most mixed-species leks form when single male greater prairie chickens (or very small groups) establish territories at an existing sharp-tailed grouse lek. This conclusion is supported by analysis of (i) numbers of males of each species in mixed vs. mono-specific leks, (ii) sequences of display site occupancy across years, and (iii) the seasonal phenology of prairie chicken attendance at sharp-tailed grouse leks. Our results imply that male prairie chickens benefit from displaying with heterospecifics versus displaying alone and suggest that lekking provides benefits derived, directly or indirectly, from reduced predation risk. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Nebraska (gbachman@unlserve.unl.edu)

The mating success of polygynously breeding males may be enhanced by maximizing the allocation of time and energy to activities which promote mate acquisition. Foraging is not likely to directly promote mating success yet it may be necessary to ‘fuel’ breeding efforts. The potential trade-off between foraging and mate acquisition is amplified in ground squirrel species which breed shortly after emerging from hibernation. Time budgets and body composition were examined in two squirrel species: Spermophilus tridecemlineatus (St) and Spermophilus beldingi (Sb). In each, a subset of males received daily food supplements. Relative to a pre-breeding period, foraging decreased in breeding St males but increased in Sb males; both increased searching and running during breeding. In both species, supplemented males foraged less than controls. During the pre-breeding period, St and supplemented Sb males gained more fat-free mass (FFM) than fat though both lost fat during breeding. Sb males also gained FFM during breeding. Foraging during breeding contributed more to fueling energy expenditures in St than in Sb. Habitat differences may affect the importance of foraging during breeding in these species. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Montana, Auburn University (abadyaev@selway.umt.edu)

Animal species use different types of traits in sexual displays. Long ago it was proposed that among a suite of potential displays, animals will generally emphasize the trait that is most conspicuous or that best signals condition and reduce display of other traits. While this idea has been widely proposed, it is virtually untested. Here we examined the relationships between song complexity and plumage elaboration in 45 species of cardueline finches, which are highly variable in plumage display and song complexity but share a similar mating system. Controlling for body mass, vegetation density, elevation of breeding, and phylogeny, we found that song complexity was negatively related to elaboration of carotenoid-based coloration but unrelated to expression of melanin-based coloration. Carotenoid pigmentation, like song complexity, has been shown to be a condition-dependent signal used in mate choice. Melanin pigmentation, on the other hand, is generally not dependent on individual condition. These observations supports the idea that animal species trade-off expression of condition dependent traits, perhaps in response to changes in the costs or the information content of the display traits. (Evolution of Signals; Tues. 10:45 AM - 11:00 AM; NMM1)

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Auburn University (abadyaev@selway.umt.edu)

Individuals should choose habitats that yield the highest reproductive success and survival. In turn, assessment of habitat should improve with extent of habitat sampling prior to settlement. Habitat sampling can be limited by the distribution of suitable habitats in relation to the mobility of an organism. Physiological condition, age, social status, and previous experience may also influence the individual investment in habitat sampling. We examined variation in breeding dispersal in male and female Wild Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) and show that the relative importance of these factors varies among individuals. In all individuals, increase in social status and greater familiarity with local environment allowed acquisition of better breeding habitat with lower sampling efforts. While female dispersal was mostly affected by vegetation distribution and prior experience, male sampling was affected by female settlement decisions. In both sexes, dominance interactions within single-sex wintering flocks influenced dispersal and settlement. The number of factors associated with dispersal decisions increased along the adult females- subadult females-adult males-subadult males sequence. Strong divergence in ecological conditions and corresponding variation in social systems among introduced turkey populations provides a great opportunity to evaluate the importance of factors discussed here for the evolution of breeding dispersal. in this species. (Dispersal Symposium; Sun. 1:45pm-2:00pm; Sale)

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The rearing environment during captive chimpanzee infancy and juvenescence has broad effects on behavioral development. The influence of rearing on the sexual behavior of juveniles was studied using 500 hours of behavioral data collected on 29 chimpanzees (15 males, 14 females) between the ages of four and six years. Social history varied with respect to infant rearing (mother vs. nursery) and later social group composition (peer vs. mixed-age). Analysis of variance revealed that mother-reared juveniles showed higher levels of sexual behavior than nursery-reared subjects, although all study subjects were observed to copulate. Sexual behavior did not differ between juveniles reared with their mothers for two years and those mother-reared for longer periods. No differences were detected between peer-housed juveniles and those housed in mixed-age groups. Ten female subjects later became pregnant; four of the five pregnancies by nursery-reared subjects were aborted, while only one of five pregnancies by mother-reared females was aborted. Understanding the determinants of species-appropriate sexual behavior will enhance our ability to maintain the captive chimpanzee population and to house them in optimal social settings. (Parental Care 2; Sun. 3:15pm-3:30pm; NMM1)

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University of Massachusetts - Amherst (mbbaker@ent.umass.edu)

Theory predicts that dispersal’s extent should be inversely proportional to its costs. Survival costs of natal dispersal have rarely been measured, however. Species in which one sex travels farther than the other provide a valuable natural experiment for detecting costs of increased movement. I review studies of natal dispersal in birds, mammals, and arthropods where data on secondary (pre-fledging or weaning) and tertiary (post dispersal or adult) sex ratios are available. If greater movement has higher costs than relative philopatry, the farther traveling sex should be under-represented in the adult population. A majority of studies suggest that increased travel does entail higher survival costs, and that cooperatively breeding birds show higher survival costs than birds overall. I will present quantitative estimates of the survival costs of dispersal, and discuss possible confounding factors involved in searching for costs of dispersal in demographic patterns. (Dispersal; Sun. 5:00pm-5:15pm; Sale)

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University of Maryland (baleskaren@aol.com)

Because of the necessity of lactation, mammalian mothers must perform some minimum amount of infant care. In cooperatively breeding species, other group members aid in all other aspects of infant care. However, some mothers continue to carry and nurse their infants more than others. The golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia) is a small, cooperatively breeding primate in the family Callitrichidae. I studied hormonal, functional, and social factors hypothesized to contribute to levels of maternal care in a wild population of golden lion tamarins. I utilized birthweight as a measure of prenatal investment, and carrying and nursing as measures of postnatal investment. Higher birthweight was associated with lower litter size, lower prepartum estrogen levels, and higher prepartum cortisol levels. Higher carrying was associated with better maternal condition, higher litter size, and smaller numbers of helpers per infants. Higher nursing was predicted by lower group size, provisioning of the mother, better maternal condition, and higher litter size. The most important factors affecting postnatal investment appear to be maternal condition, group size, litter size, and maternal provisioning. Some females appear to invest more than others either because they have to (they have fewer helpers) or because they can (they are in better condition). (Parental Care 2; Sun. 2:00pm-2:15pm; NMM1)

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Auburn University (ballebe@mail.auburn.edu)

Blue grosbeaks Guiraca caerulea are socially monogamous, sexually dichromatic songbirds. Males are almost entirely blue, while females are brown. Previous studies showed that plumage blueness is related to nutritional condition during molt and that bluer males hold larger territories with more food resources. Here we tested the hypothesis that females use male plumage blueness as a criterion in choosing mates. In a mate choice arena, we presented females with a choice between males whose feathers were either artificially brightened with blue marker or artificially dulled with black marker. Treatment of males resulted in changes in color intensity such that we increased the intensity of blue-treated males and decreased the intensity of black-treated males. The wavelength of peak reflection (hue) remained unchanged. During mate-choice trials, females showed consistent preferences for particular males, but choice was random with respect to treatment. Thus, the intensity of blue coloration of male blue grosbeaks appears not to function as a criterion in female mate-choice. (Mate Choice 2; Sun. 2:00pm-2:15pm; NMM2)

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Assoc. Assess. & Accred. of Lab Animal Care Int'l. (kbayne@aaalac.org)

Both decrements and improvements in the well-being of laboratory animals can occur via several types of learning. Laboratory primates will imitate certain behavioral pathologies, such as hair-plucking, that they have observed other animals in the room performing. An understanding that some species learn by observation to mimic the atypical behaviors expressed by other animals has led to careful management of individual animals expressing these types of behavior. Conversely, classical conditioning techniques have been applied to train laboratory primates to move into a transfer box so they do not have to be anesthetized for routine cage change. Also, laboratory primates have been trained to cooperate in biological sampling techniques such as vaginal swabs, venipuncture, and CSF taps through an Omaya catheter. Perceptual learning has been used to socialize laboratory dogs, cats, and guinea pigs to various tactile, visual, auditory, and olfactory stimuli to reduce stress when they are exposed to new environments (such as going outside for exercise, handling by different personnel, etc.). Trial and error learning is used by animals provided food puzzles or mechanical puzzles to solve; thus these devices are frequently incorporated in environmental enrichment programs designed to improve the animals' psychological well-being. (Applied Animal Behavior Symposium; Tues. 3:00pm-3:30pm; Sale)

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University of Dayton (beallsam@hotmail.com)

Ornamentation in female birds has traditionally been viewed as the result of genetic correlation between the sexes and strong sexual selection acting on ornamentation in males. The alternative hypothesis of sexual selection acting directly on females has only recently become the focus of study, and there is evidence supporting the sexual selection hypothesis for, at least, some species (reviewed in Amundsen. 2000. TREE 15:149). In this review, we extend the discussion of the sexual selection hypothesis to ask (1) if either male mate choice or female intrasexual competition is more likely to favor female ornamentation in birds, (2) if particular aspects of female individual quality are more likely than others to favor ornamentation as a predictor of quality, and (3) if greater vulnerability of nesting females to predation can account for less conspicuous ornaments in female versus male birds. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Tennessee, Knoxville & San Diego State University (mbealor@utk.edu)

Several species of lizards respond to chemicals from sympatric lizard-eating snakes. These substances elicit antipredator behavior indicating they have important ecological functions. However, the source of chemicals utilized by lizards in detecting potential snake predators has yet to be examined. We tested the ability of adult desert iguanas,_Dipsosaurus dorsalis_, to detect and identify a potential snake predator by exposing them to lipid extracted from shed snakeskin. Lipid was extracted from cast skins of a known lizard-eating snake, the California kingsnake Lampropeltis getula california, using chloroform/methanol. Test subjects were presented with skin lipid as well as clean, pungent, and chloroform controls on cotton-tipped applicators, in a randomized order. Desert iguanas directed significantly more tongue flicks toward applicators bearing snake lipid than to any of the controls. In addition, overall tongue extrusion frequency increased in response to lipid during the 5-minute trials. Desert iguanas clearly detected the presence of the lipid extract, but a lack of associated changes in posture and movement patterns indicates they failed to associate lipid with a potential threat. (Predator/Prey; Mon. 1:45pm-2:00pm; NMM2)

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Eastern Michigan University & Indiana State University (peter.bednekoff@emich.edu)

Animals frequently raise their heads from feeding and scan their environments for predators. We used a grid of 4 cm high barriers to test how information animals gather with their heads raised might interact with information they gather with their heads lowered. These barriers prevented dark-eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis) from seeing to the side while pecking, but allowed them to see all around when they raised their heads. Birds preferred to feed without barriers, when given a choice, but readily fed within them otherwise. Birds scanned less in larger groups regardless of the barriers. When the barriers were present, birds spent more of their time scanning and generally took longer scans. This indicates that juncos value information gain through peripheral detection and compensate for its loss. Scanning patterns also tended to be more regular when the barriers were present. This suggests that variation in scanning patterns might be due to interactions between peripheral detection and overt scanning behavior. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Missouri, Butler University, & University of Connecticut (mabf79@mizzou.edu)

During aggressive interactions, some animals assess their opponent’s fighting ability using information conveyed in communication signals. In green frogs (Rana clamitans), the fundamental frequency of acoustic signals is negatively correlated with body size, which is positively related to fighting ability, and males behaviorally discriminate between signals that differ in fundamental frequency. During aggressive territorial interactions, however, males lower the fundamental frequency of their acoustic signals. In a field playback experiment, we tested the hypotheses that males lower fundamental frequency to 1) more accurately signal body size, 2) honestly signal size-independent fighting ability, or 3) acoustically inflate their apparent size. Calls with altered frequency did not better predict male size, nor did they predict two measures of size-independent fighting ability. However, small males decreased frequency more often and by a larger magnitude when faced with a simulated large opponent, but large males did not behaviorally discriminate between simulated opponents of different sizes. We suggest the possibility that frequency alteration is a form of context-dependent bluffing in which small male green frogs produce dishonest signals of size during agonistic interactions they are unlikely to win. (Behavioral Context; Mon. 11:45 AM - 12:00pm; NMM2)

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Slippery Rock University & NIH-NIDDK (simon.beeching@rockmail.sru.edu)

The convict cichlid, Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum, is a monogamous, biparental fish from Central America. Mate choice theory predicts that both sexes should be discriminating during pair formation in Neotropical cichlids, and both sexes should benefit by choosing larger mates. We used a three-way choice apparatus in the laboratory to assess mate preference in both males and females. Females did not prefer to consort with larger males, while males did prefer to consort with larger females. Male mate preference in convict cichlids could increase male reproductive success, since larger females are generally more fecund. A comparison of individual preferences revealed that females were not less "choosy" than males, but instead did not exhibit a common preference for a particular male size class. (Recognition & Mate Choice; Tues. 3:00pm-3:15pm; NMM1)

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University of Nebraska - Lincoln (mbelik@unlserve.unl.edu)

To maximize net intake, foragers in nature must search for food efficiently. This is especially important for visually searching predators searching for cryptic prey. Searching image has been proposed as one mechanism to facilitate search for cryptic prey. This type of search has also been termed sequential priming because it is results from the predator finding the same type of prey sequentially which then facilitates future detection of that prey type. However, there are other cues in the environment that a predator could use to locate cryptic prey. In this experiment we propose that a visually searching predator might also be using abstract" cues in the environment to locate specific prey. This process we term visual priming". These cues could be something like the tree type or microhabitat on which the prey is usually found. In this experiment, using operant procedures with blue jays hunting for digitized cryptic moths", we have shown that blue jays are able to associate abstract cues with specific prey types and that this facilitates the detection of the prey types. However, it is still unclear if this type of priming is the same process as sequential priming (searching image) primed in two different ways, or if these two types of primes are indeed two different processes. We proposed an experiment that will elucidate this question as well as its ecological significance. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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DePauw University (jbenedix@depauw.edu)

The ground crickets Allonemobius fasciatus and A. socius form a zone of overlap and hybridization in which there is selection against the hybrids. However, there is little or no reproductive character displacement in male calling songs or female song preferences. Mating trials were performed in two different years with two different feeding regimes to determine if there was any isolation during the post-advertisement portion of the mating process. In no-choice mating trials, there was only one indication of conspecific mating preferences (food-restricted _A. socius) _, and in group mating trials there was no evidence of preferences. Observations of the conflict between males and females regarding the fate of the spermatophore (i.e. whether it is consumed by the male or the female), suggest that females may benefit by mating multiply, including matings with heterospecific males. Males are hesitant to release their spermatophores after copulation, therefore females may need to mate many times to gather appreciable energy. Because the cost of mating mistakes is reduced by conspecific sperm precedence, there may be a net benefit to mating indiscriminantly. Thus the continued low level of hybridization may be maintained by the indirect effects of male-female conflict. (Recognition & Mate Choice; Tues. 2:45pm-3:00pm; NMM1)

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Lynchburg College (benson.k@mail.lynchburg.edu)

Females of many species have traits that vary with reproductive condition. These traits can convey information to males about the female's reproductive status. We examined one such trait, the gravidity spot, in the mosquitofish, Gambusia holbrooki. First, we tested the natural relationship between male response (number of gonopodial swings) and both spot expression and female size. Spot expression and female size were not significantly correlated, so we examined each independent variable separately. We did not detect a relationship between female size and male response. There was a significant, positive relationship between gravidity spot size and male response. Second, we manipulated female spot size using tattoo ink to test whether male response was related to spot size, rather than some correlated feature. Females, paired for similar size, were tattooed either with black ink, or clear ink vehicle (control) over the appropriate area for an anal spot. We found, in a paired, sequential-choice test, that males responded significantly more to females with augmented gravidity spots than to sham-treated females. Male G. holbrooki from our test population respond to the gravidity spot with increased mating behavior. We are currently examining signaling costs and timing of female receptivity. (Mate Choice 4; Weds. 11:45 AM - 12:00pm; NMM2)

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Emory University & Santa Fe Institute (dirk@santafe.edu)

Alarm-calling behavior is common in many species that suffer from predation. While kin selection or reciprocal altruism are typically invoked to explain such behaviors, several authors have conjectured that some alarm calls may instead be costly signals sent by prey to inform approaching predators that they have been detected. To explore this hypothesis, we use game theory to model a scenario in which prey, varying in alertness, can signal this alertness to predators, in the hope of discouraging pursuit. We find that alarm calls can function as honest signals of prey awareness when (1) the prey's sense of predation risk accurately reflects the predation threat, and (2) greater awareness of the predator allows the prey a greater chance of escape. When honest signalling is possible, prey will be more willing to signal when predators are common than when predators are rare, and that greater pursuit costs to the predator will allow cheaper signals by the prey. (Anti-predator Behavior; Tues. 5:30pm-5:45pm; NMM2)

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Kent University - Stark Campus (pbernstein@stark.kent.edu)

It is estimated that over 60 million cats currently reside as pets in the United States. Yet few studies have focused on how cats and people interact in the home setting. This preliminary study examines the petting interaction. Using surveys of cat owners, I sought to identify what body areas owners perceived as being the preferred targets of their cats, and owner perceptions of how their cats solicited petting from them. Analysis of data for 90 cats in single-cat homes provided few surprises; results reflected patterns that are familiar to any cat owner. For example, owners perceived a range of body areas (about 7) their cats preferred for petting, from the "Dorsal head region: cheeks, top of head, nose/face" through "Base of the tail" to "No preference, pet anywhere". Gender of the cat seemed to play a role in preferences. Solicitation behaviors were also familiar, and "rubbing" (of legs, hands, etc) was the most frequently cited. Meowing and jumping on laps were also cited frequently and purring, flopping on the ground nearby, sitting and looking at or walking by, stopping, and looking back, were cited less frequently. The most interesting result that owner descriptions provided, however, was a realization that the petting interaction is quite complex, and definitely two-way. Either the cat or the owner may initiate petting, resulting in a petting bout or a rebuff by either party. Misreadings by either party can also occur. I intend to undertake video-taping of naturally-occurring petting interactions in the future. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Wisconsin (jkbester@students.wisc.edu)

Early developmental experiences can produce a cascade of effects on adult behavior. To determine how changes in parental behavior alter social behavior in offspring, we examined the effects of cross-fostering on aggression in two Peromyscus species. Previously we showed that unmated male California mice (P. californicus) attack conspecific males rapidly in two types of aggression tests, the resident-intruder and neutral aggression tests. In contrast, male white-footed mice (P. leucopus) attack more slowly in these two tests. Cross-fostering alters these patterns of aggression by causing males from each species to resemble their foster parents in behavior. After cross-fostering, males from the less aggressive species, the white-footed mouse, show no change in the resident-intruder test and more aggression in the neutral aggression test. However, males from the more aggressive species, the California mouse, show a decrease in resident-intruder aggression and no change in neutral aggression. These behavioral changes in cross-fostered white-footed mice are associated with body weight during development and the amount of parental behavior shown by foster parents. These results suggest that the quality of care shown by parents produces changes in social behavior that last through adulthood. (Learning Social Signals; Sun. 5:15pm-5:30pm; NMM1)

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University of Oregon (abissell@darkwing.uoregon.edu)

In many species, population differences in phenotypic traits are thought to persist due to female choice or male-male competition which prevent populations from interbreeding. This study focuses on possible behavioral mechanisms of population discrimination among lizards. Specifically, we ask whether population-level discrimination is more apparent in inter- or intra- sexual interactions, and whether discrimination takes the form of attraction or avoidance. We ran over 1000 trials that tested the ability of Sagebrush lizards (Sceloporus graciosus) to discriminate their own population from several other populations. In addition, we utilized both single-choice and two-choice designs which enabled us to distinguish between attraction and avoidance. We used lizards from one population as the subjects in all trials; otherwise, the trials were randomized with respect to the population and sex of the lizards. We found a preference among male lizards for females from their own population. This male-choice is the result of greater attraction to same-population females rather than avoidance of foreign females. These results suggest that male choice may play a role in population discrimination and speciation in lizards. (Recognition & Mate Choice; Tues. 2:30pm-2:45pm; NMM1)

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University of Missouri - St. Louis (abixler@jinx.umsl.edu)

Bateson (1978) suggested that, since both inbreeding and outbreeding may cause negative fitness consequences, organisms should undergo optimal outbreeding: breeding with individuals of intermediate relatedness, such as first cousins. Subsequent empirical tests supported this prediction; however, in each case, social preference, not mating behavior, was used as the criterion of "mate choice." In this study, we offered male and female prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster) a choice of four unfamiliar targets of differing degrees of relatedness: full sibling, half sibling, cousin and unrelated. Targets were each tethered within their own compartments in a four-way choice apparatus but the subject was free to move about all the compartments and interact with the targets. We recorded number of visits, investigation, huddling, grooming and mating behaviors. There was a trend for subjects to mate with the less related targets (cousin and unrelated). In a second experiment, we used two-way choice tests to investigate the effects of familiarity versus relatedness. Preliminary results suggest that subjects prefer an unrelated and unfamiliar target to either an unfamiliar or familiar sibling. (Mate Choice 4; Weds. 10:30 AM - 10:45 AM; NMM2)

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Universidad Nacional de Tucuman (pblack@csnat.unt.edu.ar)

Many species of weakly electric fishes show sexual dimorphism of the electric organ discharge (EOD) especially during the breeding season; these differences in EOD probably function in sexual recognition. In the banded knifefish Archer Hall Gymnotus carapo, no sexual dimorphism has ever been observed. These experiments tested for dimorphism in EOD in this species. In the first tests, 8 individuals were implanted with testosterone; the EOD was analyzed before and after treatment visually and with Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT). No difference was seen visually in the EOD, but a change occurred in the FFT. In all 8 fish a shift to lower peack frequencies and a loss of higher components occurred. The second experiment exposed 7 fish to natural conditions of light, temperature and rain and examined the FFT of the EOD at 2 points with 1 control fish. Changes similar to those of testosterone occurred in 4 fish. These results suggest that sex-related EOD characteristics exist in this species. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Texas A&M University (blackwood@cls.org)

A software routine was produced which achieves over 98% accurate detection of vocal responses from subjects of two species (Tursiops truncatus and Delphinapterus leucas). The routine was developed to analyze archived data and classify responses in real time during hearing tests. The routine was tested by analysis of historical data from audiometric tests of the marine mammals. The data format was a reduced representation, where the maximum data value per millisecond of acoustic data was stored. Whistles were scored as responses, and other vocalizations were rejected as non-responses. Over 48,000 separate response records from seven different subjects were analyzed and compared to hand-scored data, yielding an overall agreement of 98.3%. The routine also determines time of onset for each response and length of response for use in response delay analysis. The consistency, repeatability, and time savings of automated response time determination argues strongly for its use over observer measurement. An average processing time across all 1998 test tone data on a 90 MHz Pentium system was about 1.5 milliseconds per invocation. Current hearing tests for marine mammals use this routine. Response times are faster and length of the response is longer for louder tones for some frequencies tested. (Communication 1; Weds. 10:15 AM - 10:30 AM; NMM1)

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The objective of this study was to document behavioral differences in the development of young chimpanzees with differences in early social history. Forty-one chimpanzees (23 males, 18 females) were studied between 1.8 and 4 years old. Some subjects (n=22) were continually mother-reared, some (n=7) were mother-reared for two years followed by alternative social settings, and some (n=12) were nursery-reared in a social setting . Over 760 hours of behavioral data were analyzed with 20 behaviors collapsed into six categories. Multivariate analysis of variance revealed significant effects of early rearing history. Continually mother-reared subjects displayed less agonism and abnormal behavior, and more sexual behavior and solitary play than did subjects in other settings. Continually mother-reared chimpanzees showed less agonism, and more sexual behavior and solitary play than those subjects with only two years of mother-rearing, but the chimpanzees showed similar amounts of abnormal behavior, social play and grooming. This study sheds light on which chimpanzee behaviors are most affected by early rearing conditions, and is important for determining optimal conditions for raising chimpanzees. (Applied Animal Behavior; Tues. 1:30pm-1:45pm; Sale)

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University of Alaska - Fairbanks & Institute of Arctic Biology (ftgmb@uaf.edu)

We hypothesized that social organization in coastal river otters (Lontra canadensis) was related to sexual dietary partitioning. We radio-tracked 55 otters in Prince William Sound, Alaska, from 1996 to 1998. Stable isotope analysis of fur from 111 individuals revealed that males preyed more on rapidly-swimming pelagic fishes, whereas females consumed more sedentary, intertidal fishes, which constitute a lower–quality diet. Males were 10.8% larger than females which may confer superior swimming ability to males, facilitating the capture of faster prey, but we suggest that sociality is important in dietary partitioning. More social otters had diets significantly higher in schooling pelagic fishes. Only 53% of females were social, occurring mostly in mixed-gender groups, whereas 76% of males socialized, mostly in all-male groups. We hypothesized that social otters were cooperatively foraging and should require less space in which to meet their energetic needs. Highly social otters had smaller home ranges than did less social otters, and asocial otters had the largest home ranges. We suggest that the time-consuming task of raising offspring prevents females from joining mixed-gender groups, but when not raising young, females join males to cooperatively forage for better-quality prey that would be difficult to acquire as a solitary forager. (Social Behavior 1; Mon. 2:45pm-3:00pm; NMM2)

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University of Tennessee (cboake@utk.edu)

A decade before he won the Nobel Prize, Tinbergen posed four problems for the study of behavior. These are (a) proximate control, (b) development, (c) evolution, and (d) selective value. Since the prize was awarded, studies of the problem of selective value have largely eclipsed the other three. Recently, molecular genetics has provided a powerful tool for phylogenetic analyses in studies of the pattern of evolution of behavior. Genetic tools show great promise for allowing us to address and integrate all of the problems identified by Tinbergen. These tools may be particularly valuable in investigations of signalling systems and speciation.

(ABS Fellows Lecture; Mon. 8:00 AM - 9:00 AM; MLKJr)

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Lehigh University (akk4@lehigh.edu)

Courtship behavior is often considered in the context of mate selection. However, few studies investigate the role of courtship as it pertains to parental care in monogamous species. Courtship in monogamous species can be quite long, and often includes repetitive behaviors that are similar to those used in offspring care. This repetition may be an attempt to synchronize their parental care activities. Attenuated courtship should then affect the parents' abilities to coordinate offspring care activities. To investigate this, we shortened courtship in the monogamous, biparental convict cichlid Archocentrus nigrofasciatum, and examined the subsequent parental behavior. Our results indicate that while courtship is not necessary to synchronize egg laying and fertilization, it may be crucial in the synchronization of offspring care activities. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Washington (boersma@u.washington.edu)

Increasing human numbers and consumption underlie most conservation problems. To date, efforts to conserve biodiversity have focused on setting aside areas and/or managing human impacts. Often these efforts have fallen short of their goals, amounting to "too little, too late." In marine conservation, the problem is particularly acute. In contrast to terrestrial systems, there are far fewer marine reserves, and we know far less about the behavior and ecology of the marine species we wish to conserve. Magellanic penguins are a case in point. Although land reserves exist at many of the main breeding sites for penguins, there are no corresponding marine reserves. The conservation questions that we face then is: Can species such as penguins that cross international boundaries and spend part of their lives in the open ocean be protected while at sea? Flexible behavior and variable environmental conditions make long-term protection for such a species or populations problematic. Moreover, oil pollution, fishing and global climate change all negatively impact Magellanic penguins. Conserving these penguins will depend upon learning more about how they use the environment and how environmental changes influence their population dynamics. Tools such as satellite telemetry are critical to this effort. They enable researchers to determine where penguins forage and how to make marine uses more compatible with wildlife protection. (ABS Conservation Plenary; Weds. 8:00 AM - 9:00 AM; MLKJr)

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San Francisco State University & Point Reyes National Seashore (amysb@sfsu.edu)

Previous studies have considered the effects of various types of watercraft disturbances on the haul-out patterns and behavioral responses of harbor seals. We considered the variation in occurrence of kayaks within 200m in comparison with other types of watercraft at two harbor seal haul-out sites within San Francisco Bay, California. Since kayaks are more maneuverable they often advance closer to the haul out site than other types of watercraft. A higher proportion of kayaks elicit a disturbance response from the seals than all other types of watercraft within 200m of the haul-out sites. Kayaks within 200m also caused a higher proportion of flushes. This differential response to the kayaks is a consequence of the proximity of the kayaks to the seals. Kayaks are more likely to elicit disturbance responses from hauled-out harbor seals because they are quiet and low to the water. These factors may not allow the seals to detect kayaks until they are much closer to the haul-out site and may lead to a higher startle response. (Applied Animal Behavior; Tues. 2:15pm-2:30pm; Sale)

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University of Western Australia (kathryn@psy.uwa.edu.au)

Marsupials are a group of unique mammals that have adapted to the same ecological niches that eutherian mammals have. Marsupial's learning and cognitive abilities have rarely been studied, so our objectives were to examine learning in marsupials and relate them to their ecological needs. The Fat-tailed Dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata) is a small, predatory carnivorous marsupial that inhabits areas where food sources are sparse, patchy and unpredictable. These factors should make learning and memory important for efficient food gathering. To test learning, the animals were given fifteen visual discrimination tasks, and any improvement in the rate of learning each task was noted. Memory was tested by a delayed-alternation task. Both experiments took place in a Y-maze, with food as the reinforcement for correct responding. Learning tasks were all learned within eighty trials to a criterion of over 75% correct in a session. In addition, instances of one-trial learning were recorded in new tasks and in probe reversals after the twelth task. Memory tasks are in progress. The results of learning tasks indicate that this marsupial is highly adept at visual learning and at adapting choice strategies to obtain food. (Animal Learning & Cognition; Tues. 9:30 AM - 9:45 AM; Sale)

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University of Florida & University of Tennessee (suebb@grove.ufl.edu)

Although best-known in birds, lekking has also been documented in insects, fish, amphibians, and mammals. This study is the first to report a lek-type mating system in a terrestrial carnivore species. Coatis (Nasua narica) were studied in Tikal National Park, Guatemala. Marked individuals were habituated and observed throughout almost two years, including two breeding seasons. Their mating system was found to closely resemble a classical lek. Males aggregate during the breeding season and display to females. Males offer no external resources at the time of mating, nor do they provide any parental care after young are born. Females choose when and with which males they mate. The only aspect in which the coati system differs from a classical lek is that males aggregate around a wandering band of females and juveniles, not at a specific geographic location. Females need not go to an arena, because the arena follows them. (Mate Choice 1; Sun. 11:15 AM - 11:30 AM; NMM2)

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Universidade de Brasília (vborges@unb.br)

Male blue-black grassquits Volatinia jacarina a species which inhabits open vegetation in most areas of the Neotropics, exhibit a conspicuous display consisting of repeated, short vertical flights from elevated perches. During the leap males emit a buzzing vocalization and expose white underwing patches. In central Brazil, where the study was conducted, the reproductive season lasts from November to May, during which time males acquire a glossy black nuptial plumage. Individuals used in laboratory experiments were kept in an outside aviary, with the segregation of males and females. Displays are executed in laboratory only in the presence of females, and thus may be the basis for female choice in this species. To understand how females make choices based on display, we presented females (n = 36) to pairs of males (six repetitions) and recorded their choices as well as male display characteristics. Results will be discussed concerning the effects of display parameters (height and rate), male persistence, plumage characteristics and morphological traits. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Archbold Biological Station (rbowman@archbold-station.org)

Variation in individual dispersal patterns in cooperative breeding birds may be influenced by the intrinsic benefits of delaying dispersal and the extrinsic constraints on finding high-quality breeding opportunities. Intrinsic benefits may vary little among populations but variation in extrinsic constraints, such as demography, population density and spatial patterns, and landscape patterns that influence movements, may vary greatly. In particular, habitat fragmentation is likely to influence many of these extrinsic constraints. Occupied patches in fragmented systems may vary in habitat quality that influences survival and reproductive rates, the number of territories within patches, the number, size, and distance to other occupied patches, and the landscape mosaic between occupied patches; thus the relative costs and benefits of different dispersal strategies may vary among patches. We compared dispersal patterns of Florida scrub-jays in contiguous and fragmented habitat and attempted to explain variation in individual dispersal patterns. Individual dispersal patterns varied relative to the expected patch-specific costs and benefits. (Dispersal Symposium; Sun. 11:30 AM - 11:45 AM; Sale)

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University of Kansas (Lbrandt@falcon.cc.ukans.edu)

Models of genetic variability show that selection tends to erode genetic variation. One possible mechanism for the maintenance of variation in fitness traits is antagonistic pleiotropy, in which a gene, or a closely related group of genes, has a positive effect on fitness through one trait and a negative effect through another trait. A quantitative genetics half-sib breeding design was used to construct a genetic variance-covariance matrix of sexually selected and life history traits of the lesser wax moth, Achroia grisella. The lesser wax moth produces an ultrasonic signal whose temporal characters (signal rate, peak amplitude, and asynchrony interval) are attractive to females. Significant negative covariances between moth signal rate and all other characters monitored (other signal characters, adult life span, nightly calling duration, and body weight) indicate that antagonistic pleiotropy is present and may maintain variation. The consequences of these findings on the natural history of Achroia grisella and the theory of antagonistic pleiotropy are also explored. (Sexual Selection; Sun. 3:45pm-4:00pm; NMM2)

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Ohio State University & Smithsonian Institution (bronson.5@osu.edu)

Carolina (Poecile carolinensis; CACH) and black-capped (P. atricapillus; BCCH) chickadees hybridize in an east-west band across northern Ohio. Within the past century, this hybrid zone and the CACH range to the south have been moving northward into the retracting BCCH range. We examined one possible mechanism for this shift in distributions, namely mate choice in females of both species. Given a choice within an aviary setting, a significant majority of females of both species that had not observed social interactions between a male CACH and a male BCCH preferred to associate with the BCCH male. In nature, both species form consexual dominance hierarchies, often correlated with body size. In the aviary, CACH males dominated BCCH males unless a CACH male was substantially smaller. Once females of both species had observed the dominance relation between a particular dyad of CACH and BCCH males, they associated preferentially with the dominant male, regardless of species. Thus, male CACH dominance may be contributing to the northward movement of the hybrid zone. (Mate Choice 3; Mon. 3:15pm-3:30pm; NMM1)

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University of Nebraska - Lincoln (kbrooks@unlserve.unl.edu)

In this study I examined the song structure of the Northern Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis). I found a significant amount of variation between individual birds in selected song characteristics such as trill rate, frequency bandwidth, inter-note interval, and note duration (unpublished data). These data, when examined together, represent how physically "difficult" a song is to sing. For this study I took field recordings in and around Lincoln, Nebraska and parts of western Nebraska of Northern Cardinals during the breeding season, April through July 1999. I also used recordings gathered from Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Florida. Approximately 638 songs were collected and analyzed from 43 individual birds. When comparing these songs using a combination of the above characteristics, significant amounts of variation were found. These data show that these characteristics , when used in conjunction, can produce a viable "degree of difficulty" measure. This measure can then be used as a method of comparison between and within various bird species, thus determining who sings the most difficult songs. The significance of these data lies in testing whether song may actually serve as an honest signal for sexual selection and for territory defense. These data may demonstrate that birds who are considered most threatening to males and most attractive to females, because of their song, are also those that possess a true physical advantage: the ability to sing a physically difficult song. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center & Emory University (sbrosna@emory.edu)

The exchange of material goods, such as food, would add to the repertoire of reciprocal interactions in a species. The ability to exchange has been demonstrated in apes, but has not been rigorously tested in any monkey species. Brown capuchin monkeys, Cebus apella, are highly intelligent and known to cooperate and share food, which makes them ideal candidates. This study aimed to 1) train capuchin monkeys on an exchange task, and 2) determine if the monkey recognized the need for a partner in these interactions. Tests were conducted using socially housed capuchin monkeys isolated in a familiar test chamber. Monkeys exchanged a non-edible item for a food reward with a human exchanger. Individuals were categorized as either 'fast' learners of the exchange task (minimal or no shaping required) or 'slow' learners (extensive shaping required). Then tests were done to see if the monkeys recognized the necessity of an exchange partner to receive the reward and to see if the monkeys recognized one individual of two as the exchange partner. We found differences in both the speed of acquisition and their understanding of the human's role. (Social Behavior 1; Mon. 4:15pm-4:30pm; NMM2)

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University of Hawaii - Hilo (geckowrangler@bigfoot.com)

Animals display a variety of behaviors to avoid contact with pathogens and to treat infections. For example, great tits choose parasite free nest sites, geckos avoid contact with wet fecal material, and chimpanzees seek out and consume plants with compounds that are deadly to some parasites. In some instances dominance behavior may be related to pathogen avoidance. The unisexual gecko, _ Lepidodactylus lugubris _ readily forms dominance hierarchies in the lab and behaves aggressively towards both individuals of its own species and other gecko species when housed in restricted areas. Since the species is unisexual, it is difficult to understand why individuals are so intolerant of each other. We hypothesize that intra-species aggression is maintained in _ L. lugubris _ because aggressive individuals are less likely to contract an illness than individuals that are tolerate the close proximity of others. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Emory University (dbrown5@emory.edu)

Previous studies have demonstrated that non-human animals can discriminate between natural categories. However, critics have argued that the discriminations may be based on the similarity between stimuli belonging to the same category, and not on the categories per se. To address this distinction, five chimpanzees were trained to make same-different judgments between facial images of lions and wolves. Subsequently, they were presented with probe trials on which morphed images were paired with each of the training images. The morphed images were composites of the original lion and wolf images, and formed a visual continuum between the original images. Morphed images that were more lion-like than wolf-like (i.e., > 50% lion) were reliably judged to be the same as lions and different than wolves, and the opposite was found for primarily wolf-like morphed images. Thus, a dramatic change in responding occurred at the midpoint of the continuum. Categorization functions are typically characterized by a dramatic change in responding at one point along a continuum, while similarity judgments may be characterized by a more linear function. Therefore, the present findings suggest that the chimpanzees judged the stimuli categorically and not solely on similarity. (Animal Learning & Cognition; Tues. 11:00 AM - 11:15 AM; Sale)

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University of Mississippi (byrb@olemiss.edu)

Female wild turkeys choose a mate based on the length of his fleshy frontal process, commonly called the snood. Because snood length is negatively correlated with parasite load, this may be an example of female choice for good genes that provide offspring with resistance to deleterious infections. The uncheatable mechanism by which parasites negatively impact ornament growth has been hypothesized to be an antagonism between the testosterone thought to be necessary for ornament growth, and the high corticosterone levels produced by chronic infection. We report on the relationships between male ornamentation, hematocrit, blood metabolites that indicate condition, and testosterone and corticosterone titers from captive wild turkey males sampled before, during, and after the breeding season. The implications for the evolution of parasite-mediated sexual selection in this species will be discussed. (Mechanisms of Behavior; Mon. 11:30 AM - 11:45 AM; NMM1)

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University of Tennessee (gburghar@UTK.edu)

Diet and genetics interact in determining the ontogenetic trajectory of chemosensory and prey preferences in the common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, a dietary generalist. Adult snakes were captured from a single small field in an earthworm ingesting population of snakes. The snakes were maintained in captivity until they gave birth. Adult (n = 18) and neonatal snakes (n = 86) were given similar prey chemical tests on several concentrations of earthworm and fish surface substance extracts. In spite of being fed fish frequently in captivity, adult snakes were more responsive to earthworm cues and earthworm prey. For neonates, initial responses to chemical cues from fish and worm were similar. After 12 meals on fish, the neonates preferred fish in both prey choice and chemosensory responses and growth rates were related to changes in chemoreceptive responses. Lifelong diet may reduce plasticity and the ability of dietary experience to alter prey preference. Alternative explanations and possible physiological mechanisms will be discussed. (Predator/Prey; Mon. 2:00pm-2:15pm; NMM2)

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Simon Fraser University (jgburns@sfu.ca)

Recent interest in the costs of fat storage to birds has focussed on the effects of extra mass on a bird's ability to escape predators. Fat is the primary fuel used in long migratory flights, but is believed to slow a bird's escape ability because of increased wingloading. We tested for the effect of fat on escape ability in three species of migrating Calidrine sandpipers. A bird's escape ability may also be selected for depending on the intrinsic riskiness of its preferred foraging habitat. We tested for the proximate causes of differences in escape ability between species that differ in preferred foraging habitat. The ultimate causes of differences in escape ability are also explored. (Anti-predator Behavior; Tues. 4:15pm-4:30pm; NMM2)

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USDA ARS (campbell@usgmrl.ksu.edu)

Self-superparasitism occurs when a female parasite deposits a clutch of eggs on a host that she has already parasitized. This behavior is nearly always costly in terms of eggs, time, or damage to progeny and many organisms have evolved mechanisms to avoid self-superparasitism. In this study, oviposition decisions and their fitness consequences of a seed parasite, Sitophilus oryzae (rice weevil), were investigated. This insect feeds and oviposits on a range of grains (e.g., rice, wheat, sorghum). Female S. oryzae chew a hole into a seed, lay an egg, and fill the hole with an egg plug. Larvae must then complete development within the seed selected by the female. Previous research had suggested that female S. oryzae were relatively indiscriminant in their oviposition behavior. The results of this study indicate the females do assess seed characteristics and the presence of conspecifics and adjust oviposition behavior in response to this experience. The size of the seed, previous exposure to seeds, and exposure to other females influenced how many eggs were laid and where in the seed the eggs was deposited. The influence of these changes in oviposition behavior on the adaptive value of self-superparasitism will be discussed. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Universidade de Brasília & Washington State University (mcariel@unb.br)

Reproductive groups of Guira cuckoos Guira guira are composed of relatives and non-relatives, and their behavior includes cooperation (nest construction, predator defense) and competition (egg tossing, infanticide). We investigated if females vary their hormonal investment into eggs according to the probability of egg ejection in order to influence success of their offspring. We predicted that the chances of egg tossing should be inversely related to levels of androgens in eggs. We collected ejected and recently laid eggs daily and used standard laboratory protocol to measure yolk hormones. Preliminary results are based upon fourteen groups (average group = 4.5 adults) that were monitored during 23 nesting bouts, with an average clutch of 6.7 eggs and 2.2 tossed eggs. There was high variability in androstenedione4 (0.880 to 93.650 pg/mg of yolk) and testosterone (0.090 to 4.590 pg/mg of yolk) investment in eggs. As clutch size increases, so does the fraction of eggs containing high levels of androstenedione4. Since clutch and group sizes are positively correlated, this may indicate that higher levels of competition in larger groups lead to higher androgen investment in eggs. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Universidade de Brasília (humming@unb.br)

The concept of sexual selection is useful to explain the evolution of characteristics such as male displays that could help some individuals obtain a greater number of sexual mates. The blue-black grassquit (Volatinia jacarina: Emberizidae), is a small, granivorous, neotropical bird that is very abundant in Brazil. The males of this species exhibit a distinctive display that consists of repeated vertical flights from elevated perches. During these leaps they expose the white underwings and emit a short buzzing vocalization. The males usually display in clusters, a pattern that overall is quite similar to that exhibited by lekking species; however, information about the species’ mating system is still scarce and controversial. The study was carried out through field observations during the species’ reproductive season in the "cerrado" region of Central Brazil. Preliminary results will be discussed, and include the differential ability of males to attract females, given the characteristics of their displays (height and rate of flights), size and structure of territories, and morphological factors. Additional information concerns males’ nesting success and paternal investment. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Rutgers University - Newark (chaiken@andromeda.rutgers.edu)

Oscine songbirds learn their songs by memorizing and reproducing those of adult conspecifics. For some species, memorization is restricted to a brief period in early life, and no new songs are added after sexual maturity. Other species, by contrast, continue to sing new songs throughout their lives. The nature and extent of the differences between critical-period" and open-ended" learning are not fully understood. It might be assumed, for example, that early exposure to song is unimportant for open-ended learners, but this is not a necessary inference. As a case in point, humans can learn a second language as adults but apparently cannot master a first language after puberty. The present study is designed to see whether an open-ended learner can acquire new species-typical songs as an adult if it has not developed normal songs in its first year. Starlings, Sturnus vulgaris, are good subjects because they are among the few species that have been demonstrated to memorize new songs as adults (Chaiken, Bohner & Marler, 1994). Nestlings were collected from the field, hand-raised in isolation from adults, and housed individually in sound-attenuated chambers. After a year, their songs displayed the abnormal phonology, song organization, and repertoire sizes typical of isolates. Each bird was then housed with a wild-caught adult male throughout the winter and early spring. At the end of this time, the subjects had imitated their tutors and developed species-typical songs. It appears that in starlings the song learning process is independent of early experience with species-typical song. (Learning Social Signals; Sun. 3:45pm-4:00pm; NMM1)

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University of Texas - Permian Basin (chuchi@caprok.net)

Our study analyzed differences in the activity area of male and female Southern Plains woodrat (Neotoma micropus) during spring breeding and fall cashing periods. The study was conducted in the mesquite grasslands of West Texas. Activity areas were determined by use of fluorescent dye powder. Our results indicate that males have a higher activity area in the spring than in the fall. The increase is probably due to mate search activity. Female activity areas tend to be larger in the fall. The increase may be due to the fact that females must cache food for themselves and young who, over the winter, are in the same den. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Wisconsin (jrclemmo@facstaff.wisc.edu)

Imitation, a specific form of learned behavior, is regarded as a key characteristic for cultural learning to evolve but is rarely observed in noncaptive animals, with the exception of bird song (Order Passeriformes), which is perhaps the most commonly observed, naturally occurring, nonhuman form of cultural learning in the animal kingdom. Parrots (Order Psittaciformes) use both visual and acoustic modes of imitation in their communication, but these cases of imitation are largely known from captive subjects. The quest to study cultural learning in a wild population of African Grey Parrot brings me at an intersection with conservation issues. In the first stage of this research, I compare vocal behavior of different populations of grey parrots, and show the relevance of this research to conservation using theory as a guidepost and methodology as a tool to preserve an ecosystem and a valuable form of behavioral diversity. (Conservation; Weds. 9:45 AM - 10:00 AM; Sale)

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Lehigh University (alcd@lehigh.edu)

Using Archocentrus nigrofasciatum, a serially monogamous fish, we investigated the role of sex ratios on mate choice. This was accomplished by placing different numbers of males and females into experimental aquaria and recording the rate of pair formation based on mate availability. When a single male and a single female were placed in a tank, the observed rate of pair formation was 50%. Biasing the sex ratio toward one gender or the other yielded an 80% pair formation rate (i.e. one male placed with three same size females; or one female placed with three same size males). When three same size males and three same size females were placed in an aquarium we observed a 100% pair formation rate. Although it appears that an increase in mate availability increases the likelihood of pair formation,we suggest that the acceptance rate is not significantly different from random. (Mate Choice 1; Sun. 11:45 AM - 12:00pm; NMM2)

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Indiana University (eclotfel@indiana.edu)

To solicit food from their parents, nestling birds produce conspicuous begging displays that include visual and auditory components. Researchers have assumed that nestling mouth color is a signal to parents, but its importance is still not fully understood. Recent studies have shown that bright red mouths are indicators of hunger and may be related to nestling quality. We tested these hypotheses in nestling dark-eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis) by subjecting them to short-term food deprivation and to a hormonal suppression of male parental care by implanting some males with testosterone. We found that short-term food deprivation significantly increased the redness of nestling mouths, but our data suggest that this may be due to factors other than hunger. We found no significant effect of nestling body size on mouth color, giving no support for the nestling quality hypothesis. Male testosterone treatment had no effect on nestling mouth color. We discuss alternative explanations for our results and our plans for future research. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of California - Davis (lecody@ucdavis.edu)

Cryptic female choice has received little attention as an intense source of sexual selection on males in part due to the difficulty of observing internal physiological processes and the paucity of studies examining both the intricacies of reproductive behavior and patterns of sperm precedence. I examine how female behavior during oestrus affects the outcome of competition between males and between sperm for fertilizations in California ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi). Females in this species choose their mates and partially or completely control many aspects of mating. Although females are in oestrus throughout the day, female initiation of copulation is not evenly distributed during this time. Instead, females appear to have a single conspicuously large break in their day when no copulation events occur. Males that copulate before females take a break from mating activities, and those that copulate closest to either end of the break, sire greater proportions of offspring. The percentage of offspring sired by males is not affected by the total time spent in consort, the number of consorts or the duration of consort leading to copulation. 100% of the litters examined in this study are multiply sired. (W.C. Allee Competition; Mon. 11:00 AM - 11:15 AM; Sale)

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San Francisco State University (collins@sfsu.edu)

The great gerbil (Rhombomys opimus) is a social desert rodent that lives in family groups consisting of an adult male, one to four females and offspring. The gerbils exhibit well developed anti-predator behavior and emit alarm calls in the presence of diverse predators. To test hypotheses of signal variation, we analyzed spectrographs of alarm calls recorded in the Kyzyl Kum desert in Uzbekistan for variation by sex, age, location and type of predator. Univariate and multivariate analyses revealed that calls of young juveniles differed significantly from those of adults, but that there was no difference between calls of adult males and females. We also found no differences in the structure of calls given in response to three different predators: human, dog (Canis familiaris) and lizard (Varanus griseus). Our analyses did reveal that signal structure of alarm calls may vary by family group. These results suggest that Rhombomys alarm calls are not referential and do not communicate the type of predator. Further study is necessary to test the hypothesis that calls are risk" based. (Communication 1; Weds. 11:00 AM - 11:15 AM; NMM1)

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University of Georgia (sarahec@egon.psy.uga.edu)

According to Gibsonian theory, an individual can perceive functional design features, such as shape, that afford effective use of a tool. Tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) choose hook tools in accord with functional design features (Hauser, 1999), even though these monkeys do not readily use tools. We replicated Hauser's (1999) study with six capuchins (Cebus apella), a species that does use objects as tools spontaneously. We examined the monkeys' selection of hook-like tools in a dichotomous choice task and their success at using the chosen tools to sweep in a food treat. We varied a) location of the treat in relation to the tool, b) characteristics of the tool, and c) familiarity of the tool. Subjects reliably chose novel tools and were most successful with tools that contained the treat within the hook structure. They often succeeded at retrieving the food even when the objects they chose were designated "impossible" tools, by using the objects in novel ways not anticipated by the experimenters. In choice and proficiency, capuchins differ from tamarins, suggesting that these species rely on different affordances in manipulating tools. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Butler University & Indianapolis Zoo (rdale@butler.edu)

A "head-shake" behavior, when an elephant raises its head to one side then moves it rapidly down and to the other side, has frequently been observed in both African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Several researchers, including Phil Kahl (personal communication: 9-27-98) and Cynthia Moss (1988), have suggested that this behavior may be a visual display indicating "annoyance" or "displeasure". We tested five female African elephants on a memory task involving food hidden in pots at eight locations. Analysis of the videotaped sessions showed that head-shakes usually occurred just after an elephant had opened a pot. Head-shakes were significantly more likely to occur after finding an empty pot, that is, after the search for food was unsuccessful. The results are consistent with the proposal that the head-shake is a visual display indicating annoyance. We will present a detailed description of the head-shake behavior. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Wisconsin - Madison (esdavis@facstaff.wisc.edu)

Many studies on mate choice in waterfowl indicate that female mate preference is best predicted by male courtship activity. However, courtship and pair-formation typically occur weeks or months prior to the breeding season, which is when fitness is realized. Sperm aside, in many seasonally monogamous waterfowl species the only contribution males make to the breeding effort is mate guarding. The most demonstrable effect of mate guarding in waterfowl is to increase female foraging efficiency, which in turn increases her reproductive output. Male mate guarding has also been shown to be under the influence of testosterone (T) in some passerine species. In this study on captive mallards, _ Anas platyrhynchos _, my results indicate that fall female mate choice predicts, but does not affect, spring T levels in males. Moreover, high T males were more effective at guarding their mates than low T males. Taken together, these results indicate that females are choosing males during the fall who will guard them effectively during the spring. This study is the first to link fall mate choice to possible fitness benefits realized during the spring breeding season. (Mate Choice 4; Weds. 11:15 AM - 11:30 AM; NMM2)

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Coastal Carolina University (crowe@coastal.edu)

Ghost crabs, (Ocypode quadrata) are macroinvertebrates that live in burrows on sandy beaches along the Atlantic ocean. Ghost crab burrows are nonrandomly dispersed along the beach. Juvenile burrows are more likely to be found near the water while adult burrows are found above the high tide line. The foredune area is devoid of burrows. A variety of abiotic and biotic factors may influence burrow dispersion. In this study we examined the effect that sand moisture content and grain size play on burrow location. We collected sand cores at four different distances from low tide at five different transects that ran perpendicular to the shore. At each location 3 PVC cores 1 m in length were inserted into the sand and we collected sand from the top and bottom of each core. The sand was then placed in a drying oven and grain size was determined. Preliminary results show that sand collected from 30 m from had a higher moisture content than the other three distances. It appears that sand collected from the top and bottom of the cores do not differ in sand moisture content. Grain size analysis has just begun and these results will be presented. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Georgia State University (gs08ded@panther.gsu.edu)

Siberian hamsters increase food intake and food hoarding during pregnancy simultaneous with marked reductions in body fat. We employed the diet self-selection model (‘dietary wisdom’) in an attempt to obtain insight into which changes in energy metabolism during gestation and lactation preparation might trigger increases in food hoarding. Therefore, we asked: How does diet self-selection affect the normal pregnancy-induced increases in body mass, food intake and food hoarding? This was accomplished using a simulated burrow system and a pellet chow (PC) versus a self-selected diet composed of sunflower seeds (SS), rabbit chow (RC) and PC. Pregnant hamsters self-selecting their diet increased food hoard size, food intake, and body mass compared with pregnant hamsters fed only PC, or compared with their virgin counterparts (except that food intake was not increased). Pregnant hamsters fed only PC increased food hoard size, food intake, and body mass compared with their virgin counterparts. These results suggest that diet self-selection exaggerates food intake, food hoarding and body mass in both pregnant and virgin Siberian hamsters.

(General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Ministerio de Turismo y Ambiente (sdelat@yahoo.com)

The acoustic characteristics of the habitats of two wild populations of the pygmy marmoset, _ Cebuella pygmaea_ , in Amazonian Ecuador were quantified to evaluate the effects of habitat acoustics on the vocal signal structure and vocal behavior of the species. Measures of ambient noise, sound attenuation and reverberation were obtained through recordings and broadcasts of pure tones and pulse trains. Data on context, vocalization rates and acoustic analyses of four vocalizations types were obtained from six groups of pygmy marmosets, three from each population, in both the dry and rainy seasons. Despite gross similarities in the estimated vegetation structure, habitats differed in their acoustic characteristics. The calls of pygmy marmosets had frequencies that coincided with relatively quiet regions of the ambient noise spectra of the habitats. Spectrographic analyses of the vocalizations showed inter-population differences in the temporal and frequency variables of Trills, J calls and Long calls. Some of these differences appear to be related to differences in habitat acoustics. Evidences for significant interpopulation differences in primate species are fairly scarce; aside from studies of pant-hoots in chimpanzees, this study is the first to show variation in natural call structure across populations in nonhuman primates. Research supported by NGS Grant 5806-96. (W.C. Allee Competition; Mon. 11:15 AM - 11:30 AM; Sale)

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Living Links, Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center, Emory University (dewaal@emory.edu)

Many features of social life that were first discovered in primates have now been, or will soon be, discovered in other social animals. All animals living in individualized societies (i.e. societies based on individual recognition, and long-term social relationships) with high degrees of both competition and cooperation are faced with a very similar set of problems that, either through shared ancestry or convergent evolution, will steer their social evolution in directions first noticed by primatologists. Apart from the ubiquitous social dominance hierarchies, such developments include capacities for coalition formation (i.e. aggressive cooperation), reconciliation after fights, cultural transmission of social customs and food-acquisition techniques, and reciprocal exchange. These mechanisms and capacities form the matrix upon which all mammalian societies are built, and perhaps the societies of some social non-mammals as well. (Comparing Primates & Cetaceans Symposium; Weds. 2:00pm-2:30pm; Sale)

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Boston University & Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital ()

Anthropoid primates and cetaceans evince some of the most diverse specializations of brain and behavior among mammals. For instance, although there is similarity in brain structure, the different evolutionary histories of anthropoid primates and cetaceans have led to marked cortical divergences, such as differences in cortical thickness, cell number and diversity. Concurrently, in the cognitive-behavioral domain we also see both differences and similarities between primates and cetaceans. By investigating how these similarities and differences emerged in these two highly divergent groups we gain perspective on the origins and nature of mammalian brains and behavior. (Comparing Primates & Cetaceans Symposium; Weds. 2:30pm-3:00pm; Sale)

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Duke University (rod1@acpub.duke.edu)

Because of their socioecological similarities, ringtailed lemurs and cercopithecines have long been compared. One difference is that cercopithecines have been observed to deceive their groupmates but ringtailed lemurs have not. This difference may due to observational bias, differential opportunities for deception, or a difference in social cognition. In order to distinguish among these possibilities, I presented opportunities for ringtailed lemurs to deceive each other in the 'Menzel' paradigm. Here a subordinate animal is informed of a favored food's location, and then the informed subordinate and an uninformed dominant are simultaneously released into an enclosure. Previous work has shown that an informed mangabey can learn to consistently lead an uninformed dominant away from the food (i.e. deception), thereby increasing its own food intake. Two male and two female lemurs were initially trained to use a visual signal to find food at one of eight feeding sites in an outdoor enclosure. During experimental trials, an informed male was simultaneously released with an uninformed dominant female. The following results were obtained. First, females spontaneously followed males to baited food sites and usually monopolized the food. Second, after consistently moving directly to the food and losing it to the female, males employed alternative tactics. Third, some alternatives were effective (e.g. moving initially away from food and then towards it) but others were not (e.g. not moving towards any food site). Finally, unlike mangabeys, male ringtailed lemurs did not consistently employ effective alternative tactics. These results are consistent with the hypothesis of a cross-species difference in social cognition. (Behavioral Context; Mon. 11:30 AM - 11:45 AM; NMM2)

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San Francisco State University (bikegirl@sfsu.edu)

In nocturnal animals such as D. ingens, scent is an important communication signal for detecting predators. Although mammals are often assumed to avoid odors of their predators, assessment by scent may be the first line of defense in the anti-predator behavior D. ingens utilizes against predation. I tested D. ingens’ recognition of olfactory cues in the lab by presenting wild-born ,_D. ingens_ with feces of a familiar predator, the kit fox Vulpes macrotis, the domestic dog, Canis familiaris, and the control of its own feces. I recorded the amount of time and frequency each subject spent in sniffing, approaching and in the proximity of each stimulus. D. ingens spent significantly more time inside the target area with stimulus than outside, approached the fox stimulus significantly more than other stimuli, and although it sniffed the fox stimulus twice as much as the dog’s, it sniffed its own stimulus significantly more than the others. Thus D. ingens does discern among individuals in the environment via olfactory cues but stronger evidence of predator recognition is necessary. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Auburn University (fordana@mail.auburn.edu)

Micro-satellite primers amplify highly variable regions of the DNA and enable paternity assignment, but developing these primers can be time intensive. Fortunately, many primers have now been developed for a host of avian species. Because genetic information is often conserved among closely related species, it is sometimes possible to perform paternity analyses using primers developed for heterospecifics, and thereby avoid developing primers all together. If it is easy to find primers that work well when used to amplify DNA of a species other than the species for which the primers were developed, cross-species amplification has the potential to save researchers considerable time. Therefore, I have attempted to amplify house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus) DNA with primers developed for other passerine species. I have found several published primers that will amplify house finch DNA. Therefore, cross-species amplification may be a viable alternative to developing primers for the house finch. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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McGill University (shirley.desrosiers@sympatico.ca)

It has been suggested that low intensity infections with the intestinal nematode, Heligmosomoides polygyrus, can decrease the ability of mice to learn spatial tasks in a laboratory setting. In the field, decreased learning ability due to infection may have a vast array of detrimental consequences. Thus, in order to assess the impact of infection on behavior, male CD-1 mice were subclinically infected with 100 L3 H. polygyrus larvae and tested in a Morris Water Maze. The results indicate that all groups learned the task (P<0.0001), but that a moderate primary infection failed to alter the capacity of the mice to learn a given spatial task. (Animal Learning & Cognition; Tues. 10:30 AM - 10:45 AM; Sale)

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Parental care theories (e.g., Trivers 1974, Bateson 1994) predict an increase in offspring solicitation or distress upon reduction in maternal care, for example, upon the birth of a new sibling. Among rhesus monkeys on Cayo Santiago, we observed significant decreases in proximity and positive interaction between mothers and yearlings, and an increase in maternal aggression after sibling birth. Although we found no overall increase in most measures of yearling distress, some individual yearlings showed marked increases in distress measures. Mother's rank and yearling's sex accounted for some variation in distress among subjects, but the best predictor was the proportion of time spent on the nipple in the month before sibling birth. Time on the nipple was positively correlated with the proportion of time in both a passive state and a tense or agitated state, as well as with the rate of geckering in the first post-sibling-birth month. These findings suggest that those yearlings getting the highest levels of maternal care immediately before sibling birth show the highest levels of some forms of distress after sibling birth. (Parental Care 1; Sun. 11:00 AM - 11:15 AM; NMM1)

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University of Kentucky (myrmeleon@hotmail.com)

Studies of aggressive behavior routinely report interaction outcomes between group members in two dimensional arrays (matrices). The means of interpreting such matrices are rudimentary, largely consisting of qualitative descriptions of the patterns of entries in the matrix. The only quantitative metric that is commonly calculated is the linearity of the dominance hierarchy (Landau's h or a similar value). Linearity provides an estimate of the transitivity of dominance relationships among group members. However, other aspects of the social structure have important ecological and evolutionary effects. There is clearly a need for metrics that measure such features as the degree of despotism, or the tendency of animals to preferentially interact with closely ranked opponents. Furthermore, there is a need for statistical tests to evaluate goodness of fit to predicted patterns of entries. We have developed suitable metrics and tests for matrix data that can be used for comparisons of social structures across different groups or can be regressed on environmental variables. The utility of these metrics is demonstrated using data from empirical studies and a Monte Carlo simulation to generate matrices with known underlying social dynamics. (Social Behavior 1; Mon. 5:30pm-5:45pm; NMM2)

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University of Nevada -- Reno & Australian National University (Erik.Doerr@anu.edu.au)

The study of individual-level variation in dispersal behavior is emerging as a dynamic new field in animal behavior. Data are often generated through the use of radio telemetry to monitor dispersing individuals, providing a set of locations that characterize individual disperal ranges. However, if this new field is to move beyond the realm of descriptive natural history into one of rigorous hypothesis testing, its students will require new analytical tools. Currently, the primary tools available for analyses of space-use data are those of home-range analysis. I will discuss critical ways in which the assumptions and goals of home-range analysis differ from those of dispersal-range analysis. Based on these differences, I will examine the applicability of traditional methods of home-range analysis to dispersal data and whether these can be adapted to conform with the goals and assumptions of dispersal-range analysis. Finally, I will present a software program designed to analyze radio-telemetry data and calculate multiple parameters (including area, intensity of search, and rate of travel) to characterize individual dispersal strategies. (Dispersal Symposium; Sun. 2:15pm-2:45pm; Sale)

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University of Nevada-Reno & Australian National University (veronica.doerr@anu.edu.au)

Animals that live in social groups are thought to have shorter dispersal distances than nonsocial animals, facilitating greater population genetic structure and accelerated rates of evolution. Thus, behaviorists have focused on why individuals choose particular dispersal distances. But dispersal distances are not chosen per se, but result from complex decisions about how to search for breeding positions, evaluate new habitats, and cope with constraints of limited breeding opportunities. I examined the searching tactics of social and nonsocial Australian treecreepers as well as their ecological correlates to see if they differed in predictable ways, supporting the link between sociality and limited dispersal. I found that although nonsocial birds tended to search more widely on average, this was actually the result of greater variance rather than a shifting of the mean. Despite an increase in variance, the patterns of individual variation were remarkably similar for both species. However, the ecological factors that influence those patterns of variation differed greatly. This suggests that sociality influences individual dispersal decisions, but in more complex ways than suspected, forcing us to re-examine the causal relationships between sociality, individual dispersal tactics, dispersal distances, and population structure. (Dispersal Symposium; Sun. 11:45 AM - 12:00pm; Sale)

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Hólar College & University of Iceland (lisa@krokur.is)

Icelandic freshwater systems are geologically young and contain only five species of freshwater fish. These species are presented with a diversity of uncontested habitats and food resources, leading to new behavior strategies, which may be crucial in processes of morph formation and speciation. We analyzed behavior variability in seven groups of both sympatric and allopatric populations of Icelandic threespine sticklebacks and found them to differ significantly in their predisposition for zooplankton foraging, shoaling affinity, and antipredator behaviors. Differences in foraging behavior in two sympatric, polymorphic forms in the lake Thingvallavatn correlated with observed differences in trophic morphology. Shoaling affinity was more pronounced in populations under high predation pressure. Predator avoidance behavior, including startle responses and school formation, differed between groups. These results suggest that Icelandic threespine sticklebacks are evolving behavioral adaptations to suit distinct habitats. Given time and the stability of alternative niches, these novel behavior strategies may lead to greater morphological specialization, and could eventually lead to reproductive isolation and speciation. (Social Behavior 1; Mon. 4:00pm-4:15pm; NMM2)

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Instituto de Ecologia, UNAM (hugh@servidor.unam.mx)

In numerous species of vertebrates, infants compete with their broodmates or littermates during the period of parental care. In a taxonomically diverse minority of avian species the competition involves aggression, even to the point of siblicide. I have attempted to analyse the behavioral relationship between infant siblings in such a species: the blue-footed booby. In the typical two-chick brood, agonism is variable and subtle. One chick effectively controls the behavior of the other, in a relationship of dominance-subordinance, which ordinarily is sustained until both fledge. The relationship involves training effects, whereby each chick acquires a different agonistic personality. However, the intensity of the dominant chick´s aggression is conditional, and escalation can quickly lead to expulsion and death when parents deliver insufficient food. This conditional system will be contrasted with that of the brown booby, whose elder chick always attacks its sibling relentlessly until it dies, after just a few days. (ABS Fellows Lecture; Tues. 8:00 AM - 9:00 AM; MLKJr)

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Auburn University (duckwra@mail.auburn.edu)

The immunocompetence handicap hypothesis is based on the assumption that physiological levels of testosterone suppress the immune response of males. This hypothesis has received much attention among animal behaviorists, yet the immunosuppressive effects of testosterone have not been conclusively demonstrated in any passerine species. Although recent studies have tested the effects of testosterone on specific immune parameters, there are very few studies that experimentally test the effects of hormone manipulation on parasite resistance. In this study, we manipulated the hormone levels of captive birds and infected these birds with coccidia (Isospora sp.), a protozoan intestinal parasite commonly found in avian species. We monitored infection rates for 6 weeks post-inoculation. Testosterone-implanted (N=6) males had significantly higher infection rates compared to controls (N=15) only on week 3 post-inoculation (P<0.05). These data indicate that testosterone is suppressing the ability of male house finches to resist infection by coccidia, however, this immunosuppression is not detectable until three weeks after exposure to the disease. These results are used to discuss the implications of hormone and disease levels found in wild house finches. (Immune Systems & Behavior; Weds. 1:30pm-1:45pm; NMM2)

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Johns Hopkins University (dduffy@jhu.edu)

According to the Immunocompetence Hypothesis, sexually-selected characteristics predict immunity and this relationship is mediated by testosterone. I investigated this hypothesis using European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) as my model. First, I implanted male and female starlings with either testosterone-filled or empty capsules. Humoral immunity (HI) was assessed by injecting the birds with keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) and measuring antibody responses using an ELISA. Cell-mediated immunity (CMI) was assessed via injections of phytohemagglutinin (PHA) into the wing web and measuring swelling 24h later. HI was suppressed in both sexes and there was an inverse relationship between variability in antibody responsiveness and testosterone. Testosterone also suppressed CMI in males. Next, I recorded the singing of adult male starlings then assessed their immunity as described for experiment 1. For each male, song bout length and the number of songs produced were determined. Song parameters were positively correlated with both CMI and HI. Again, a negative relationship between endogenous testosterone and antibody responsiveness was observed. These data demonstrate that male starling song can be used as a predictor of immunocompetence and suggest that this relationship may be mediated by testosterone. (W.C. Allee Competition; Mon. 11:30 AM - 11:45 AM; Sale)

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University of Louisville (laduga01@athena.louisville.edu)

Recent experimental work suggests that mate copying plays a significant role in shaping mate choice in nonhumans. We extend the logic of this work to examine mate/date copying in humans in two studies involving undergraduate students at the University of Louisville (N=296). Study 1 demonstrated that peer attention increased both short-term and long-term mating interest. An interaction of peer attention with gender was uncovered, in that females were more influenced than males by levels of peer attention. Because females were more likely than males to perceive that the target who received high peer attention was also wealthy, it is possible the greater impact of peer attention on females mating interest was due to perceptions of wealth. Study 2 was designed to disentangle the impact of peer attention and wealth by independently manipulating both variables for their impact on mating interest. While perceived wealth did influence popularity per se, it was not a particularly strong predictor with respect to mate copying, when compared to other factors such as humor and, more generally, a pleasing personality. (Learning Social Signals; Sun. 5:00pm-5:15pm; NMM1)

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Indiana University (sdduncan@indiana.edu)

Using methods gleaned from computer science, notable graph theory, we applied techniques that provide us with different views of sequence data generated from video taped cowbird social dynamics. We used graph theory which has a long and rich mathematical history as a tool for the study of systems that have complex interactive relationships. We also treated the the behavioral interactions as finite state machines,as well used data from more tradition methods such as sequence lag analysis. These methods show compelling differences in male-female social interactions during the spring when males are learning to sing. The length of interactions, the use of certain behaviors, and the pattern of flow differed in triads of one male and two females, but where some pairs of females came from the male's local population and some from a distant population. Social gestures such as wing stroking and beak gapes differed reliably across groups. The vocal outcomes for the two groups of males also differed. (Social Behavior 1; Mon. 5:15pm-5:30pm; NMM2)

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(octopus@ev1.net)

Many octopus species forage far from temporary home dens, to which they return for shelter. Spatial tasks could provide a practical means for assessing learning in these mollusks. In Experiment 1, octopuses were placed in a novel arena and their movements tracked for 72 h. Movements around the arena decreased across time, consistent with an interpretation of exploratory learning. In experiment 2, octopuses were permitted 23 h to move around a maze; after a 24 h interval, their memory of a burrow location was tested. Most octopuses appeared to remember the location of the open burrow, demonstrating learning in one day. We conclude that octopuses show exploratory behavior, and that they learn and retain spatial information gained during such explorations. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Memphis (adunlap@memphis.edu)

We conducted an experiment with prairie voles, Microtus ochrogaster, to discern between two alternative hypotheses for the advantages of multiple male mating (MMM) in female mammals. The two hypotheses are that MMM increases litter size and increases the probability of pregnancy. We also tested the hypothesis that multiple copulations, independent of number of males, affect litter size and the probability of pregnancy. Females were given a choice among three males that were tethered in separate compartments during 24-hour video-taped trials. We recorded the time, number, and sequence of copulations and the male(s) involved. Results suggest that litter size and probability of pregnancy are not significantly different for females who mated with one or with multiple males, and further that the number of copulations also does not correlate with litter size. The number of copulations did significantly increase the probability of pregnancy. We conclude that neither increased litter size nor ensuring pregnancy is good explanations for MMM in female prairie voles. (Mating & Reproductive Success; Mon. 4:15pm-4:30pm; NMM1)

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University of Louisville (rlearl01@athena.louisville.edu)

Winner and loser effects have received considerable attention as extrinsic factors mediating contest outcome between two individuals, i.e. winning begets winning and losing begets losing. However, adding a third individual necessarily complicates the situation. In this study, we address the influence that bystander (third-party) observation may have on contest dynamics in the green swordtail fish, Xiphophorus helleri. Winner, loser, and bystander observation effects were teased apart by manipulating the bystander’s ability to view a contest between two individuals using clear, one-way mirror, and opaque partitions to separate the contesting pair from the bystander. Following the initial contest/observation period, the bystander was allowed to interact with either the winner or loser of the first bout. We predicted that the degree to which winner-loser effects influence subsequent interactions between the initial contestants and the bystander may change under different observation regimes. The results indicate that bystander observation may play a significant role in shaping the dynamics of dyadic interactions. In addition, bystander observation was shown to affect the winner-bystander and loser-bystander interactions in different ways. This preliminary examination serves as a stepping stone to understanding the complexities of hierarchy formation. (Behavioral Context; Mon. 10:45 AM - 11:00 AM; NMM2)

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McGill University (kehman@po-box.mcgill.ca)

While the primary function of the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) is in immune response, here its role in chemosignalling is explored. The urinary odour preferences of C57BL/10J and B10.Q female mice were examined in relation to communal nesting and mating patterns. All odour preference tests were conducted in a Y-maze apparatus and urine samples were collected in metabolic cages. The results indicated that neither female strain displayed a significant preference for a particular female odour; thus, choice of nest mates may extend beyond urinary odours. Additionally, C57BL/10J females did not show a preference for a male odour, similar or disparate, but B10.Q females preferred the urinary odours of B10.Q males (P<0.01), contradicting the original hypothesis that females would prefer the odour of the disparate male. The results of odour preference tests involving infection with the intestinal nematode, Heligmosomoides polygyrus, demonstrated that the urine of infected B10.Q males was aversive. B10.Q females preferred the odour of uninfected C57BL/10J males (P<0.05) as did C57BL/10J females (P<0.05). (Mate Choice 4; Weds. 10:00 AM - 10:15 AM; NMM2)

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University of Illinois - Urbana-Champaign (elekonic@life.uiuc.edu)

A rising blood titer of juvenile hormone (JH) influences the age at which worker honey bees shift from working in the hive to foraging. We determined whether the JH increase occurs in anticipation of foraging or whether it is also affected by two extrinsic factors associated with foraging:actual foraging experience and diurnal changes in exposure to sunlight. We recorded all foraging flights of tagged bees observed at a feeder in a large outdoor flight cage. We measured JH from bees that had taken 1, < 5, or >100 foraging flights and foragers of indeterminate experience leaving or entering the hive. To study diurnal variation in JH, we sampled foragers every 6 hours over one day. Titers of JH in foragers were high relative to nurses as in previous studies suggesting that conditions in the flight cage did not affect the JH system. Titers of JH in foragers showed no significant effects of foraging experience, but did show significant diurnal variation. Our results suggest that the high titer of JH in foragers anticipates the onset of foraging, but is modulated diurnally. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Dolphins utilize click vocalizations for both biosonar and communication. We have trained dolphins to allow us to place pressure cathethers in the nasal passages to discover the mechanism of sound production and the relationships between pressure in the nasal passages and acoustic energy output by the dolphins. In order to do this, we developed a custom data acquisition system with significant advances in convenience and capabilities. A high-bandwidth digital system captures both acoustic and physiological measures simultaneously on the same system, eliminating synchronization issues between multiple recording devices and yielding digital data for analysis without the need to digitize from analog tape data recorders. Up to eight total channels of data can be recorded, while saving half the bandwidth of the data acquisition card for the acoustic data. This research represents the first time that intranasal pressure recordings have been made at the same time as acoustic recordings while a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) performed a biosonar task. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Observations of hyena behavior suggest that, like many other gregarious mammals, high-ranking males secure the majority of all mating opportunities. We combined genetic, demographic, and behavioral data collected over 11 years from a clan of wild hyenas in order to test whether male rank and reproductive success were indeed related. Alpha males did not monopolize mating success, and paternity was not evenly distributed across ranks. A "priority of access" model in which the number of offspring sired reflects both male rank and the number of simultaneously receptive females was also rejected. Contrary to the predictions of these models, our data suggest that male hyenas queue for breeding opportunities in the clans into which they disperse. Reproductive success was highest for males who passed through a double "fitness-filter" of successful immigration and extended survival at the bottom of the new clan's hierarchy. Additionally, a precipitous decline in reproductive success after extended tenure in the clan may explain why some males engage in secondary dispersal. (Sexual Selection; Sun. 4:00pm-4:15pm; NMM2)

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Allegheny College (mengle@alleg.edu)

The ability of European starlings to mimic other species is well documented and acquisition of specific sounds has been correlated with social interaction. This research investigated the effects of social interaction with heterospecifics on species-specific song organization for starlings. Male starlings were hand-reared, paired with a heterospecific songbird or hand-reared female starling, and placed in human homes for one year, where they were deprived of adult song tutors. Home-reared males in both groups developed anomalies in species-specific temporal and syntactical organization. In most cases, these anomalies represented a shift from starling-typical patterns towards the vocal patterns of the heterospecifics they socialized with, including humans. That even males housed with conspecific females showed such anomalies is surprising and suggests that the preferences of females may have also been influenced by interaction with heterospecifics. Thus, song characteristics often thought to be predetermined can be influenced by social and acoustic stimulation from heterospecifics. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Kansas State University (fjia@oz.oznet.ksu.edu)

Response of predators to prey-induced plant volatiles can affect the length of time a predator spends in a prey patch and the probability of a predator finding a new prey patch. Variation in response to prey-induced plant volatiles may lead to different foraging decisions, thereby changing both within-patch dynamics and between-patch dispersal. We found significant phenotypic variation in two behavioral assays of response to prey-induced plant volatiles among inbred lines of the predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis. In wind-tunnel tests to measure residence time, female adult predators from certain lines left prey patches sooner than others when a distant source of prey-induced plant volatiles was present; there was no difference in leaving rate when no source was present. In a measure of reactive distance, the same lines that were more likely to leave in the wind-tunnel in the presence of volatiles were also more likely to find an odor source (i.e. prey patch) from a distance on an arena. (John Paul Scott's Founders Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Memphis (mhferkin@memphis.edu)

Scent over-marking occurs when one individual places its scent mark on top of one deposited by a conspecific. This study determines the length of time voles in two different mating systems maintain a preference for the top-scent donor of an over-mark. Experiment 1 tested the hypothesis that the preference for the top-scent mark over the bottom-scent mark is longer in a meadow voles, Microtus pennsylvanicus, a non-monogamous species, relative to prairie voles, Microtus ochrogaster, a monogamous species. The data supported the hypothesis in that a preference for the top-scent mark was maintained for 48 h in male and females meadow voles, 24 h for male prairie voles, and only 12 h for female prairie voles. Experiment 2 tested whether pair-bonded prairie voles maintain a preference for their mate's scent mark for a shorter length of time if it is the top-scent mark than if it is the bottom-scent mark. The data did not support the hypothesis, but the data did match those gathered for prairie voles in experiment 1. Overall, the findings of this study suggest that a correlation may exist between mating system and the manner in which individuals respond to over-marks. (Mate Choice 2; Sun. 3:00pm-3:15pm; NMM2)

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We describe a newly observed behavior in a group of captive chimpanzees from the Madrid Zoo that is distinct to any other reported in a chimpanzee community, captive or wild. Seven of the ten chimpanzees from the Madrid Zoo spontaneously developed the custom of smearing pieces of fruit on the concrete wall of their enclosure prior to feeding. This behavior is stereotyped in its form and performed consistently, it is durable (performed without the presence of the innovator) and present in the two generations of the group. It began in an adult female chimpanzee, who had no teeth, and spread to other group members, with intact teeth, for apparently non-functional reasons. The possible mechanisms of social transmission of the pattern in the group include social facilitation, emulation and stimulus enhancement. Furthermore, it differs from some other examples of food manipulation described in other groups of chimpanzees in that its aim is not merely obtaining food but externally transforming it. Finally, a bias toward right-hand preferences was observed in our sample (p<.05). (Animal Learning & Cognition; Tues. 10:00 AM - 10:15 AM; Sale)

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Brock University (mf94az@badger.ac.brocku.ca)

Much is known about calling song phonotaxis in field crickets. In the Texas trilling cricket, Gryllus texensis (formerly G. integer), females have a net stabilizing selection for the average male calling song. The courtship song is far less studied across all field crickets. We used G. texensis as a model to investigate if females show preferences for characters in the male courtship song. Both correlational and experimental trials have shown that females were selecting males using courtship song. Composed of two types of sound pulses, high frequency and low frequency ticks, females were selecting for shorter time intervals (silences) between the ticks - termed Gap 1. This gap was also correlated with male condition such that males with long silences were significantly in poor condition (light for their body size) when compared to males having short silences. Both Gap 1 and condition were repeatable, an indication of the amount of variation that can be attributed to consistency among males, suggesting a possible genetic basis. If heritable, females can increase the probability of mating with a genetically superior male by selecting against long Gap 1 durations - a potential example of the good genes model of selection. (Mate Choice 3; Mon. 1:45pm-2:00pm; NMM1)

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Emory University (jflack@emory.edu)

One question that arises in the study of animal societies is how stability is maintained in societies comprised of individuals with partially conflicting interests. Steve Frank (1995, 1996) phrased this question another way: how is competition among lower-level units suppressed in the formation of higher-level units? In order to investigate how individual behavior may contribute to overall conflict management, this study focused on how third parties react to and intervene in spontaneous agonistic interactions within a captive group of pigtail macaques (Macaca nemestrina). As predicted by Frank's model, the data suggest that when performed by individuals of high rank, certain types of intervention are associated with the termination and reduction of aggression, and with the facilitation of post-conflict affiliation between former opponents. We then asked what would happen to the operation of the pigtail social system if this behavioral mechanism by which conflict is managed was removed. The individuals performing most policing interventions were removed for one day every two weeks for twenty weeks. Data on rates, intensities, and complexity of conflicts, as well as on levels of social integration and reconciliation, were compared across two conditions: policing individuals present or absent. (Social Behavior 2; Tues. 4:00pm-4:15pm; NMM1)

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Union College & Susquehanna University (fleishman@union.edu)

Male anoline lizards give spontaneous displays which make use of a colorful throat fan called the dewlap. To be effective this display must attract the attention of potential conspecific viewers. We tested the influence of the color and brightness of the dewlap and the background against which the dewlap is viewed, on signal effectiveness in Anolis cristatellis. We presented a moving, colored stimulus flag in the visual periphery and quantified the probability of a response (shift of visual gaze towards the stimulus) as a function of the contrast in color and brightness between the stimulus and the background. Signal effectiveness depended on both color and brightness contrast. We developed an equation to predict response probability for any dewlap color, viewed against any background, based on knowledge of the overall spectral sensitivity and spectral sensitivity of different photoreceptor classes. Since visual systems of different anoline species are similar, this equation is useful for assessing the role of habitat light in the evolution of dewlap color diversity. (Communication 1; Weds. 10:00 AM - 10:15 AM; NMM1)

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Emory University (sford@learnlink.emory.edu)

In some primate species, agonistic recruitment is critical to both the development and maintenance of dominance relationships in the group, and screams appear to play a significant role in soliciting support from allies. Though monkeys are capable of producing these calls at birth, they appear to require experience to use screams in their proper context. In this case study, we observed and recorded the behavior and communication of a juvenile rhesus monkey, reintroduced into the group in which she was born, after being deprived of conspecific social experience for several years. She had spent most of this period alone, but was paired with an unrelated adult female from her group for several months before reintroduction. During aggressive encounters, the juvenile failed to respond in the same way as did her peers who were raised in the group. Despite the juvenile's inappropriate behavior, the female she had been temporarily housed with defended her during attacks; the juvenile’s reintroduction into the social group was, however, ultimately unsuccessful. (John Paul Scott's Founders Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Texas - Arlington (kmnelson@uta.edu)

The relationship between running speed and flight distance is an important one in terms of escape from predators, especially in species that may have multiple defensive strategies. In the wolf spider, Lycosa carolinensis, the most obvious antipredator mechanism is flight. We examined the relationship between sprint speed and flight distance in wolf spiders by measuring sprint speed on a running track and, in a separate set of experiments with the same individual spiders, measured the distance at which they fled from an advancing model predator. Sprint speed was not significantly correlated with mass, size, or sex of the spiders. Sprint speed was significantly, positively correlated with flight distance. This correlation may be the result of a trade-off between two competing modes of antipredator mechanisms: escape and crypsis. In individuals with higher sprint speeds, escape may be the more advantageous option. Slower individuals may have a greater chance of surviving an encounter with a predator simply by remaining still and relying on crypsis. (Anti-predator Behavior; Tues. 4:30pm-4:45pm; NMM2)

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Zoo Atlanta, Georgia Institute of Technology, Morehouse College (forthmand@mindspring.com)

To provide information on mother-offspring interactions among captive drills, Mandrillus leucophaeus, behavioral data were collected on six infants, five female and one male, born to a single female at Zoo Atlanta. Data were collected for one year after birth by continuous focal animal sampling. Interbirth intervals decreased for each successive offspring and were shorter than those mentioned for Mandrillus in the literature. Mother-offspring dyads spent upwards of 80% of time in contact during the first 3 months. Rates and types of contact decreased throughout the first year, reaching 10% by month 12. Mothers were responsible for maintaining mutual proximity until the third month, when this responsibility shifted to the infant. Weaning behaviors began at 3 months of age and remained prevalent until month 7. When looking at yearly means, changes in maternal behavior over subsequent offspring were not present. However, changes were evident in the timing of behaviors. For example, with subsequent offspring, mother-offspring contact decreased at an earlier age. The relationship of such changes to maternal investment theory will be discussed. (Parental Care 2; Sun. 2:30pm-2:45pm; NMM1)

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The social behavior of individual adult Sepia pharaonis in a captive school were observed over a three-month period (approximately 60 hours of observations). This warm-water species has not been cultured previously in the United States and little is known about its behavior. Eighteen individuals were identified and social interactions were recorded on videotape for further analysis. Three distinct size classes of males were noted. The larger and medium-sized males typically showed distinct zebra-striped body patterns, while females and smaller males typically showed mottled brown or muted zebra-striped body patterns. The largest males mated most frequently and for the longest durations. The smallest males also mated, but medium-sized males were never observed mating. Agonistic interactions among males occurred primarily between large males and typically consisted of visually dramatic displays with arms spread laterally toward on another. Mating behavior differed from the more commonly studied Sepia officinalis in that S. pharaonis males guard females for long periods of time for both before and after mating. This species is hardy, more docile than S. officinalis, and is clearly suitable for both behavioral research and mariculture purposes. (Mating & Reproductive Success; Mon. 5:15pm-5:30pm; NMM1)

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Indiana State University (lsfrank@scifac.indstate.edu)

Visual scanning for predators is a bird's most basic means of avoiding predation while feeding, and detecting an approaching predator may be a difficult visual task. If birds have evolved a dominant brain hemisphere for processing visual information, then important information should be processed preferentially by that hemisphere. Thus, given the relative lack of crossover in the avian brain, the eye contralateral to that hemisphere should be used predominately in anti-predatory vigilance: birds should have a favorite eye. We conducted a study that examined laterality in eye use during the anti-predatory scanning of free-living, wintering sparrows. Birds were allowed to feed parallel to a visual obstruction, thereby forcing them to choose which eye to orient away from the visual obstruction and towards possible approaching predators. Dark-eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis) favored their right eye more than would be expected by chance. Tree sparrows (Spizella arborea) had a strong tendency to favor their left eye, though not significantly. The mechanics of the scanning process itself in these birds also seemed to favor one eye over the other. These data suggest that laterality exists in the visual detection of predators, and that it may differ considerably even in closely related species. (Anti-predator Behavior; Tues. 2:45pm-3:00pm; NMM2)

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Indiana University (mfreake@bio.indiana.edu)

The idea that animals can navigate using "map" information derived from spatial gradients in the Earth's magnetic field has been hotly debated since it was first suggested. Our recent studies using the eastern red-spotted newt Notophthalmus viridescens provide the first compelling evidence for magnetic map navigation in an experienced migrant. Newts which were displaced approximately 45km NNE of their home ponds oriented in the home direction when exposed either to the ambient magnetic field of the testing site, or to a 2 degree increase in magnetic inclination (normally encountered further along the displacement direction). When exposed to a 2 degree or 0.25 degree decrease in magnetic inclination (found on the opposite side of home), however, the newts reversed their direction of orientation. Furthermore, when exposed to an inclination value similar to that of the home pond, the newts were randomly oriented with respect to home. The two degree changes in inclination had no effect on shoreward magnetic compass orientation, indicating that the magnetic inclination manipulations affected only the map step of true navigation. (Habitat Choice; Mon. 3:45pm-4:00pm; Sale)

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Purdue University (freeberg@bilbo.bio.purdue.edu)

We previously showed that characteristics of the chick-a-dee call of Carolina chickadees, Poecile carolinensis, change when birds switch flocks. Here, we tested whether social interactions between a "joiner" and members of its new flock were necessary for vocal change. In social flocks, all birds were housed together in the same large aviary; in isolation flocks, the joiner and members of its new flock were housed in the same room, but in individual cages. We recorded the calls of joiners before and after they had been in their experimental flocks and played those pre-flock and post-flock calls back to the flock members. In social flocks, but not in isolation flocks, flock members responded differentially to the pre-flock and post-flock calls of the joiner. Several acoustic characteristics changed in the calls of joiners in social flocks. Taken together, these results suggest that acoustic stimulation alone is insufficient to modify a joiner's calls, but that social interaction between the joiner and its new flock mates is necessary for those vocal changes. (Learning Social Signals; Sun. 4:15pm-4:30pm; NMM1)

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Purdue University (jlucas@bilbo.bio.purdue.edu)

We measured auditory brainstem responses (ABR) of 5 species (downy woodpecker, white-breasted nuthatch, tufted titmouse, Carolina chickadee, and house sparrow) to evaluate species differences in auditory electrophysiology. These species vary in their taxonomic affinities and in several features of their vocal repertoire. Our preliminary results suggest that several ABR characteristics correlate with vocal complexity: click-rate effects on ABR waveform latencies (tested with rates from 30 to 140/sec) were greatest in the nuthatch (the species with the overall least complicated and lowest frequency vocal repertoire), although none of the species showed a marked rate effect, even at 140 clicks/sec. Similarly, ABR response latencies to broad-band clicks were longest in nuthatches. While these differences could result from differences in auditory acuity, they could also result from differential neural responses to sound frequency. We are currently evaluating this possibility. Our preliminary results support the intriguing idea that properties of the auditory-brainstem pathway are related to the evolution of avian vocal complexity. (Evolution of Signals; Tues. 11:00 AM - 11:15 AM; NMM1)

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Florida State University (Fuller@neuro.fsu.edu)

Signaling theory predicts that the environment in which signals are emitted affects the efficacy of the signal. Organisms living in environments with drastically different transmission properties should use different signals. In this study, I examined the relationship between the lighting environment and male color patterns in the bluefin killifish (Lucania goodei) across multiple populations in Florida. Male color patterns are polymorphic. Male anal fins can be blue, yellow, red, or a combination of two of these colors. I found a strong, negative correlation between the proportion of males in a population with blue anal fins and the transmission of the UV/Blue wavelengths through the water. Blues should only be seen in very short distances such as when courting females or fighting with other males but will attenuate over longer distances possibly reducing detection by predators. This is consistent with verbal models which predict strong selection for fish in shallow water to use blues in intraspecific communication. In addition, I found a positive correlation between the proportion of males with yellow anal fins and the amount of tree cover surrounding populations. These results were consistent across multiple drainages indicating that shared history does not account for the pattern. (Communication 1; Weds. 9:45 AM - 10:00 AM; NMM1)

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University of Texas - Austin (gabor@uts.cc.utexas.edu)

Female Amazon mollies, Poecilia formosa, are a unisexual species that reproduce by gynogenesis. They must co-exist and mate with males of other species (usually the mollies, P. latipinna or P. mexicana) to induce embryogenesis, but inheritance is strictly maternal. We examined the mating preference of the male sailfin molly, P. latipinna, for female sailfin mollies versus Amazon mollies, P. formosa, and compared these results for individuals collected from sympatric and allopatric populations throughout the Gulf Coast of North America. Male P. latipinna from six populations sympatric with Amazon mollies showed a significantly greater strength of preference for conspecific sailfin females than males from five populations that were allopatric with Amazon mollies. Moreover, there was a significant decrease in the strength of preference for conspecific females with increasing distance from sympatry. These results provide strong evidence for reproductive character displacement of male mate choice in sympatry. Furthermore, we show that the expression of reproductive character displacement is not restricted to current areas of sympatry but can be detected in allopatry, and the strength of its effect in allopatry varies predictably with distance from sympatry. (Mate Choice 3; Mon. 2:15pm-2:30pm; NMM1)

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San Francisco State University & Point Reyes National Seashore (mjgallow@sfsu.edu)

Previous studies have shown conflicting results in scanning behavior between adult male and female harbor seals. Scanning refers to movements that increase the seal’s visual field. This study compares differences in scanning bouts by hauled-out seals at Yerba Buena Island, California (YBI) between October 1998 and September 1999. YBI is primarily utilized by males at all times of the year. Up to three seals at different locations of the site were selected. Seal behavior was recorded for 15 seconds per minute for up to eight ten-minute observations during the 45 four-hour surveys. The number of scanning bouts from focal male and female seals was analyzed. Overall results suggest that females scan more frequently. The differences between scanning bouts were significant when comparing seals near the water. Females near the water scanned significantly more than males on surveys with below average disturbance levels and above average seal counts indicating that several factors may have an influence on female scanning behavior.

(General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Emory University & Yerkes Primate Research Center (JGANAS@EMORY.EDU)

This study represents the first systematic investigation of variability in maternal transport in rhesus macaques,_Macaca mulatta_. Infant carrying preferences were investigated among 88 mother-infant pairs living in three captive social groups during the first thirteen weeks of infant life. Maternal transport was compared among groups and analyzed in relation to variables such as parity, age, rank, infant sex, matriline and maternal style. Generally, ventral carrying decreased and dorsal carrying increased over time. Mothers who physically abused their infants carried dorsally earlier and at a higher rate than non abusive mothers. Dorsal carrying also occurred more frequently among the oldest, lower ranking females. There was a significantly higher incidence of arm carrying in group three. Infant carrying style was not affected by the mother's coat condition. Rather, this study suggests that maternal transport is influenced by infant age, maternal style, parity, and dominance rank. Differences in maternal transport among groups or matrilines may result from observational learning. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Kentucky (tsgarc0@pop.uky.edu)

We propose to study the joint evolution of color and behavior by comparing salamander sister species that differ in mean color, behavior and habitat. The significant mean color difference between Ambystoma barbouri and A. texanum larvae (p<.001) may be the result of changing selection pressures within and between habitats. Rapid color change and compensating behavioral strategies could mediate possible conflicts between selection pressures. We found a significant darkening response (p<0.0015) in both species when exposed to ultraviolet radiation. We also studied the behavioral response to UV in terms of color-dependent depth-choice. UV wavelengths attenuate with water depth (Kirk 1983), therefore we predicted A. barbouri and A. texanum larvae to spend significantly more time in deeper water with UV present. However, color change may mediate behavioral response, therefore we predicted darker individuals to have an increased tendency to inhabit shallower waters. We found the initial depth choice to be highly correlated with initial larval color (e.g. lighter individuals initially inhabited deep waters, darker individuals initially sought shallow waters). Over the four-hour time course, behavioral changes mediated the progressively darker color change found in both species. (Habitat Choice; Mon. 4:30pm-4:45pm; Sale)

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University of Puget Sound (kgardner@ups.edu)

Bumblebee colonies experience daily and seasonal ambient temperature fluctuations, but proper brood development requires a stable nest temperature. This study examined whether workers specialize in thermoregulation, expanding on previous evidence for division of labor in bumblebees. We videotaped three laboratory Bombus huntii colonies, and recorded incubation and fanning by individually marked bees. In one experiment colonies maintained a nest temperature close to 28 degrees C when exposed to ambient temperatures ranging from 10 to 35 degrees C. In cold conditions more bees incubated and for longer duration, and in hot conditions some bees fanned and others moved off the brood. A subset of bees incubated significantly more than did their nestmates, many of which never incubated, suggesting that some bees specialize in incubation. Small body size was the best predictor of high incubation rates, corroborating previous reports that body size regulates division of labor in bumblebees. In a second experiment we removed the most active incubators. Colonies compensated in two ways: of the remaining workers, some bees increased their incubation rates and other bees were recruited to the task. (John Paul Scott's Founders Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of California - Davis & University of Oxford - UK (jpgarner@ucdavis.edu)

Human stereotypies (abnormal, repetitive, and invariant behaviors), whether drug-induced or psychopathological, consistently involve downregulation of the basal ganglia’s ‘indirect pathway’. This pathway inhibits current responses in favor of more appropriate alternatives. Accordingly, basal ganglia dysfunction leads to characteristic inappropriate repetitive responding in several tasks. We hypothesise that stereotypy in caged animals involves a similar dysfunction, and predict that like stereotypies in schizophrenia and autism, cage stereotypy will correlate with repetitive response sequences on the ‘gambling task’ (where two responses are each rewarded 50% of the time). Five blue-tits were taught a touch-screen operant. Upon choosing one of two squares, the bird was rewarded with a 50% probability. 306 responses was collected from each bird. The mean randomness of each chain was calculated using a 3rd order Markov analysis. Route-tracing stereotypy was observed from video, and scored as a percentage of time spent stereotyping in one hour of active behavior. As predicted stereotypy was negatively correlated with mean response-chain randomness (n=5; r=-0.981; p=0.003). High stereotypy animals produced long sub-chains of repeats. Thus blue tit cage stereotypy, like human pschopathological stereotypies, correlates with a psychiatric task considered diagnostic of basal ganglia disinhibition. (Applied Animal Behavior; Tues. 11:30 AM - 11:45 AM; Sale)

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University of Western Ontario (rjgegear@julian.uwo.ca)

This contribution focuses on the recent controversy involving floral traits, patterns of pollinator movements among flowers, and limitations on insect learning and memory. We review a series of laboratory experiments with bumble bees foraging on arrays consisting of equal numbers of different artificial flower types containing equal rewards. A variety of floral traits (e.g. color, scent, shape, symmetry, flower handling techniques) and states of trait were manipulated to assess what effect trait diversity had on the flower visiting patterns of individual bumble bees. We found that we could induce different foraging patterns depending on the traits of the flower types in the array. These patterns included flower constancy (more sequential moves between flowers of the same type than expected by chance), foraging preference for one or several of the flower types available, as well as random foraging. Our findings indicate that plants can exploit the behavior of their pollinators through the diversity of their floral characteristics. (Foraging; Tues. 1:45pm-2:00pm; NMM2)

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York University (gibeault@yorku.ca)

The main goal of this study was to examine the vocal repertoire of the western lowland gorilla, Gorilla gorilla gorilla. Over 100 hours were spent recording details about vocal communication in 25 western lowland gorillas, in the holding areas of four different zoos. For every vocalization heard, the call type, the individual calling, its posture and behavior, and the context of the call were recorded. These data were analyzed for categorization and to describe the possible function of each category. Over 15 different categories of vocalizations were identified. Results showed that certain classes of vocalization were used more frequently than others. In addition, some calls elicited vocal responses. The call types that were responded to and were used as responses were not in direct proportion to their frequency of use. This suggests that these vocal exchanges may serve a particular function and are not random. Also, the animals occasionally vocalized together, overlapping their calls, which may serve to coordinate the activities of widely dispersed group members. Most call types were used by every animal, but a few types were specific to individuals. This may be related to age and sex classes or to roles in the social system. (Evolution of Signals; Tues. 11:30 AM - 11:45 AM; NMM1)

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University of Nebraska & UCLA (rgibson2@unl.edu)

Current perceptions of sexual selection in lek-breeding birds are based largely on observations of mating behavior and have seldom been checked against genetic data. Retrospective analysis of data from past studies of sage grouse indicate that (i) although almost all observed matings are performed by males holding lek territories, only around half of adult males found on or near leks are territorial, and (ii) of radio-tagged females that visited intensely-observed leks at the time when they were expected to mate, less than half were observed mating. Examples from microsatellite DNA analyses of paternity confirm that females whose matings are not seen did not mate with territorial males at the lek they visited. Other observations exclude visits to other leks by these females, but not cryptic mating with non-territorial males at the lek periphery or away from a lek. These findings suggest that the lek mating system of sage grouse could be substantially different from that inferred from earlier studies. (Mate Choice 1; Sun. 11:30 AM - 11:45 AM; NMM2)

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University of Louisiana (prokyon33@hotmail.com)

Polygamous associations can be detrimental to an animal's fitness. Individuals of some species of birds can detect whether a potential partner is already paired, and may then avoid polygamous partners. Previous laboratory studies with red-backed salamanders, Plethodon cinereus, suggested that the pairing status of a novel salamander affects the behavior of both males and females. We explored this possibility by testing the hypotheses that male red-backed salamanders discriminate between novel paired versus single females, and that males discriminate between two novel single females, one swabbed with water and the other swabbed with secretions from another male. We also tested the related hypotheses that females discriminate between novel paired versus single males, and that females discriminate between two novel single males, one swabbed with water and the other swabbed with secretions from another female. Our results provided no evidence that males discriminated between females. However, our results indicated that females discriminated against males bearing odors from other females. We therefore suggest that female red-backed salamanders can discriminate between males that have or have not recently associated with other females, and that this discrimination against odor-bearing males could result in females avoiding polygynous associations. We term this the "pheromonal wedding ring hypothesis". (Mate Choice 4; Weds. 10:15 AM - 10:30 AM; NMM2)

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Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center & Emory University (mgong@emory.edu)

High population density has traditionally been viewed as having a direct effect on aggression, although recent research on captive primates fails to support the hypothesis that crowding is invariably associated with an aggression increase. This study is the first to investigate the effects of crowding in a New World primate species. Two colonies of brown capuchins (Cebus apella) were observed under two conditions: a control condition and a short-term experimental condition in which the colonies were restricted to half the space of the control condition. Hourly rates of self-grooming, aggression, contact-sitting, grooming, and play were compared across both conditions in a within-individual design. Self-grooming was the only behavior that increased significantly under the crowded condition, indicating an increased anxiety level as also suggested in other studies. High-level aggression, contact-sitting, play, and social grooming decreased significantly with crowding, suggesting that capuchins avoid social contact with increased spatial confinement. Based on these results, capuchins appear to occupy an intermediate position between chimpanzees and macaques when coping with acute crowding. This position is reflective of similarities in complex social behaviors shared by capuchins and chimpanzees. Supported by NSF (IBN-9603923). (Social Behavior 1; Mon. 4:30pm-4:45pm; NMM2)

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Emory University & Yerkes Primate Center (psyhg@emory.edu)

We examine two hypotheses concerning the structure and function of macaque screams. The first proposes that screams are important in soliciting agonistic support from allies and that call structure has evolved to facilitate this. A second hypothesis is that screams are aversive stimuli for inducing unconditioned responses in attackers that discourage continued aggression. Data from over 400 rhesus macaque fights indicate that fights are longer when victims scream, such calling is associated with agonistic aiding, and that screaming reduces the likelihood of reconciliation between opponents. We also compare screams from victims of attack that involved contact aggression in four species of macaques (Macaca mulatta, M.nemestrina, M. nigra, M. arctoides): for each species, 100 screams from females three years of age or older were digitized and acoustic features of each call measured. Discriminant function analysis was used to determine whether or not the 400 vocalizations could be assigned to the correct caller species on the basis of their acoustic structure. Calls were assigned to the correct species at a significantly higher rate (93.5%) than expected by chance. Each of the four macaque species used acoustically distinct screams in a shared context, a finding that argues against the conditioning hypothesis. (Communication 1; Weds. 11:45 AM - 12:00pm; NMM1)

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University of Georgia (gowaty@ecology.uga.edu)

Parental Investment Theory (PIT) says when females invest more in offspring than males, selection operates so that females are choosy (coy, passive) and males ardent (sexually interested and active). We tested these predictions in three species of Drosophila, two of which, D. pseudoobscura and D. melanogaster, are "typical" with more maternal than paternal investment. Gamete sizes of males and females are the same in D. hydei. PIT predicts ardent males and coy females in D. pseudoobscura and D. melanogaster, but few sex role differences in D. hydei. We randomly assigned individuals to pairs, observed activity during their first five min together; counted all movements and noted when movements were toward vial mates. Females were often as ardent as males; some males were as coy as many females. Some females approached males as often as typically active males. To test if approaches indicated sexual interest we compared the behavior of opposite-sex to same-sex dyads. D. hydei males and females were equally interested in same and opposite-sexed individuals. D. melanogaster females were more interested in other females than males, but males more interested in females than other males. D. pseudoobscura males and females were more interested in opposite-sexed individuals than same-sex individuals. (Mate Choice 2; Sun. 1:30pm-1:45pm; NMM2)

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Boston University (fgrasso@biomimetics.mbl.edu)

The physical processes that distribute fluid borne chemicals in the natural world make the process of tracking odors to their source serious challenge for animals that use chemical senses to locate food mates and other resources. Analysis of the plume-tracking behavior of the American lobsters suggested that lobsters trying to locate the source of an odor use cues derived from the fluid dynamics, which govern the spatial distribution of odor. Using appropriately scaled, model-lobsters (i.e., robots) under identical physical conditions as those experienced by lobsters in our earlier experiments we conducted a series of robot experiments to examine the validity and limitations of the guidance from turbulent structure hypothesis. The results suggest when strategies such as pure-chemical tropotaxis, odor-gated rheotaxis or flow-informed chemical tropotaxis are effective. They also suggest that these animals are using tracking strategies of still greater sophistication. This work is supported by a grant from DARPA and ONR to JA and FG. (Habitat Choice; Mon. 5:15pm-5:30pm; Sale)

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The Nature Conservancy, USGS-BRD, Kilauea Field Station, HI (egray@tnc.org)

Roost site selection is one of the least understood aspects of passerine behavior and thus is rarely incorporated into species conservation planning. We examined roost site selection and behavior in a reintroduced population of palila (Loxioides bailleui), an endangered Hawaiian honeycreeper. Our goal was to use information about roost behavior to better guide restoration efforts. We tracked radio-tagged control and reintroduced birds daily throughout the year to determine 1) roost locations, 2) tree species preferences, and 3) fidelity to specific locations. We found that palila typically choose roost sites outside daily activity centers. Palila rely primarily on mamane (Sophora chrysophylla) trees for nesting and foraging, but usually prefer naio (Myoporum sandwicense) trees for roosting. Individuals usually returned to the same area and oftentimes utilized the same tree on consecutive nights. This resulted in large fecal accumulations within the roost tree, which may increase nocturnal predation by introduced mammals. Surprisingly, birds reintroduced to a regenerating forest had very different roosting behavior compared to control birds. This study highlights the importance of understanding all aspects of behavior when designing restoration studies. (Applied Animal Behavior Symposium; Tues. 5:15pm-5:45pm; Sale)

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Simon Fraser University (imhamilt@sfu.ca)

Current optimal skew models predict the inequality of division of direct reproduction (skew) in pairs or trios. However, many groups are larger than this, particularly when there are other benefits to grouping than reproductive benefits. We developed a model of skew in foraging and anti-predator groups containing a single dominant individual and many unrelated subordinates. The model predicts that foraging skew increases with increasing ecological constraints on solitary living, increasing contribution of subordinates to group productivity, and increasing group size, because subordinates will accept a smaller proportion of group resources when groups are much more successful at finding resources or avoiding predators than are solitary foragers. This framework can be used to predict stable group size and the conditions under which the dominant individual is able to control resource use within the group. We tested some predictions of this model with a reef fish, the western buffalo bream (Kyphosus cornelii) in Western Australia. Non-territorial, non-reproductive, western buffalo bream form foraging groups that invade the territories of conspecifics. We found foraging skew to be significantly lower in small groups and in groups invading those territories which can be invaded most easily by solitary fish, supporting the predictions of our skew model. (Social Behavior 2; Tues. 4:30pm-4:45pm; NMM1)

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Miami University of Ohio (hankissj@stream.mcs.muohio.edu)

Conflict between sexual selection and species recognition arises when sexual selection preferences overlap with traits found in heterospecifics. One solution to conflicting signals is redundant signals. We examined female preference in Xiphophorus pygmaeus for male signals providing both sexual selection and species identification information. We also examined the effects of these signals on variance in female preference. In X. pygmaeus, female preference for large male size represents a conflict, with females preferring large heterospecifics. Females used both vertical bars and chemical signals in species identification, avoiding barred heterospecifics (X. pygmaeus are barless) and preferring conspecific chemical signals. When the preferred sexual selection trait (large body size) was presented concurrent with one species identification signal (vertical bars) no overall preference for males of either species was detected and variation in female preference increased. When females were presented with the preferred sexual selection trait and two, redundant species recognition signals (vertical bars and odor), both time with heterospecifics and variation decreased. These results support the concept that redundant signals may decrease mistakes in species identification, thereby overcoming the problems posed by conflicting sexual selection signals. (Recognition & Mate Choice; Tues. 2:15pm-2:30pm; NMM1)

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University of Nevada - Reno (khannam@scs.unr.edu)

Many shorebirds use Great Basin wetlands as breeding grounds. The conditions, particularly salt concentrations, can vary widely within and between seasons in these habitats. High salinities may pose a water-balance problem for shorebirds, and chicks may be especially vulnerable to stress imposed by a highly saline environment. We examined behavioral and hormonal indicators of stress for American Avocets raised under various salinity regimes. Young avocets were raised in the University of Nevada's shorebird facility under one of four salinity conditions reflecting those found in the Great Basin: freshwater, brackish, saline and hypersaline. Eggs were collected in the wild and chicks were raised in the experimental ponds to the age of 3 days. Chicks raised under hypersaline conditions failed to gain weight, resulting in significantly lower body condition. In addition, these chicks exhibited significantly increased locomotion and decreased feeding behavior typical of stressed animals. Hypersaline-raised chicks also tended to vocalize and head-shake more often. These result in combination with elevated corticosterone levels suggest that Avocets raised in highly saline environments in the wild may undergo significant physiological stress that could affect future survival. (Conservation; Weds. 10:15 AM - 10:30 AM; Sale)

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University of Manitoba & University of Toronto - Erindale (harejf@cc.Umanitoba.CA)

Research on ant slavery rests upon the untested assumption that slave-making ants impose fitness costs on colonies of the species that they enslave. We tested that assumption by comparing the summertime seasonal productivity of Leptothorax spp. colonies in field exclosures without slave-makers, with a colony of the obligatory slave-making ant Protomognathus americanus, or with a colony of the obligatory slave-maker Leptothorax duloticus. L. longispinosus colonies in exclosures with a P. americanus colony did not differ significantly in any demographic attribute from colonies in exclosures without slave-makers. By contrast, Leptothorax curvispinosus colonies exposed to an L. duloticus colony experienced significant reductions in dealate queens, workers and larvae relative to control colonies in exclosures without slave-makers. The pronounced difference in the impact of these two slave-makers on host-species populations reflects differences in the behavior of the slave-makers, and likely explains why P. americanus is more abundant than L. duloticus in nature. It appears that more advanced social parasites, like anatomical parasites, evolve to minimise their impact on their hosts, and thus can be regarded as prudent social parasites." (Social Behavior 2; Tues. 4:15pm-4:30pm; NMM1)

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Purdue University (eharris@bilbo.bio.purdue.edu)

The effects of mate competition intensity on sperm allocation, mate availability, and sperm reserves were modeled using dynamic programming. The model predicted that temporal availability of females should strongly affect the optimal sperm allocation decisions of males. Males are predicted to reduce sperm allocation when the competitive environment in a breeding aggregation is unfavorable or when their sperm reserves are low, and to increase their sperm allocation when more females are present. When the availability of females increases or is uniform through the breeding season, males are predicted to reduce sperm allocation than when female availability decreases through the season. These predictions may be particularly relevant for animals with short breeding seasons or which have frequent mating opportunities within a short period of time. Preliminary data for the small-mouthed salamander, Ambystoma texanum will be presented. (Mate Choice 1; Sun. 10:45 AM - 11:00 AM; NMM2)

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Center for Animals in Society & University of California - Davis (lahart@ucdavis.edu)

The use of branches by captive Asian elephants to repel flies is common in India and Nepal. We report here systematic studies on captive elephants in India showing that they readily modify branches, shortening the branches and removing stems from the side, making them more suitable for switching. We report also opportunistic observations of wild elephants using branches as fly switches while foraging. Fly switching with branches, including modifying the branch, may be the most common type of tool use by Asian elephants. (Animal Learning & Cognition; Tues. 10:45 AM - 11:00 AM; Sale)

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University of Kentucky (mihatc0@pop.uky.edu)

In most animals, the survival of dependent offspring improves with parental age. One behavioral mechanism for this improvement is that older individuals expend more effort in caring for offspring. A second mechanism is that older individuals are more efficient in their parental behaviors due to experience or skills accumulated with age. To test these two mechanisms, I compared parental provisioning rates between first year and older house sparrows (_Passer domesticus _). Older sparrows fledged more young in two out of three years for females and one out of three years for males. There was no significant difference in the number of feeding trips to the nest by first year vs. older birds, suggesting that they expend similar effort. However, the number of feeding trips is a poor measure of effort because individuals may be engaging in activities other than foraging for nestlings while away from the nest. To more closely examine parental effort, I observed parents' foraging behavior away from the nest in order to determine whether older individuals spend more or less time foraging for young. (Parental Care 1; Sun. 10:45 AM - 11:00 AM; NMM1)

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Cornell University (meh20@cornell.edu)

When people meet, they attempt to recognize each other by comparing physical features like eye color and nose shape to mental images formed during previous social encounters. Other primates, and numerous other vertebrates and invertebrates, also recognize mates and relatives by matching phenotypes to internal templates. Whereas most birds and mammals learn species-identity from their parents and siblings, brood parasitic birds are unlikely to do so. Since they are raised by heterospecifics, early social learning predictably yields inadequate or misleading information. Conceivably, juvenile parasites might inspect and memorize their own phenotype, and later match features of encountered individuals to that template. We tested for this "armpit effect" by manipulating feather colors of parasitic brown-headed cowbird chicks (Molothrus ater), and found that later, as fledglings, they preferred adults colored like themselves. (Recognition & Mate Choice; Tues. 1:30pm-1:45pm; NMM1)

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University of California & Hastings Natural History Reservation (haydock@socrates.berkeley.edu)

Natal dispersal in the cooperatively breeding polygynandrous acorn woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivorus) usually involves highly competitive power struggles" by coalitions of siblings that disperse to fill a breeding vacancies. Established breeders are rarely evicted from a group by power struggles. However, established breeders leave positions due to (1) intrasexual competition for reproduction, (2) incest avoidance, and (3) low territory quality. Individuals that leave breeding positions either return to their natal territory or obtain a new breeding position in another territory. Males and females are equally likely to leave an established position due to intrasexual competition, but females are more likely than males to leave a position due to incest avoidance or to obtain a higher quality territory. We compare the inclusive fitness of individuals with varying dispersal strategies and discuss how fitness consequences determine polygynandrous group formation and stability. (Dispersal Symposium; Sun. 2:00pm-2:15pm; Sale)

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University of Memphis (lheath1@memphis.edu)

The age of an individual may affect the manner in which conspecifics respond to it and the manner in which that individual responds to conspecifics. The objectives of this study were to determine whether 3-5, 7-12, and 14-18 mo-old male meadow voles, Microtus pennsylvanicus, differed in their scent marking behaviors. We tested the following two hypotheses. First, older males deposit more scent marks along a shared border than do younger males. Second, older males counter-mark a greater proportion of a male's scent marks than do younger males. Counter-marking occurs when an individual places its scent mark on top of or adjacent to the scent mark of a conspecific; this behavior usually occurs during intra- and intersexual encounters. Preliminary results supported the two hypotheses. Our findings suggest that the manners in which older males use their scent marks may be different from that of younger males. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Arizona (ehebets@u.arizona.edu)

Populations of the jumping spider Habronattus pugillis from the woodland habitats of mountain ranges in southeastern Arizona are isolated from one another by the lowland desert between the ranges. Males from each mountain range differ in morphology and courtship display. Females are virtually indistinguishable, which along with population genetics data suggests sexual selection as a mechanism underlying the diversification of males in these populations. Males from the Santa Rita Mountains have a fairly stationary courtship display involving palp circling while males from the Atascosas engage in a more active sidling display. Females from both of these mountain ranges were paired with males from their own range as well as males from the opposite range. Females from the mountain range with the more sedentary courtship (Santa Ritas) accepted males from the active range (Atascosas) more frequently than their own males. Preliminary evidence hints that Atascosa females are generally less receptive than Santa Rita females. Populations of H. pugillis may provide an ideal system in which to explore the possibility of chase-away selection and the role it could play in diversification. (Evolution of Signals; Tues. 10:00 AM - 10:15 AM; NMM1)

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University of Kentucky (wkhein0@pop.uky.edu)

When animals live in social groups, competition over shared limited resources is inevitable. Interactions among individuals can lead to complex dominance hierarchies. Factors such as age, sex, plumage, and morphology may be closely associated with the outcomes of such interactions. We examined the relationships between these factors and the dominance and aggression behavior of wintering house sparrows (Passer domesticus). We observed feeding stations and documented interaction outcomes and aggression levels. We analyzed the effects and interactions of age, sex, and morphological characteristics on both dominance rank and levels of aggression. Aggression level is also predicted to be higher between birds of similar rank, and we examine this here. We give particular attention to the size of black bib of the male house sparrow, which has been suggested by other researchers to act as a status signal during interactions. However, due to the significant overlap between dominance ranks of males and females (whose effective badge size is zero), and the fact that males do not fully develop their badges until the breeding season, it seems unlikely that badge size would correlate with dominance or aggression in this case. We compared our data to the predictions of the status signaling hypothesis. (Dominance & Resource Defense; Tues. 9:45 AM - 10:00 AM; NMM2)

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Kewalo Basin Marine Mammal Laboratory & University of Hawaii ()

Comparisons of chimpanzee and dolphin cognitive characteristics, as revealed by laboratory and field studies, underscore many similarities. Both species demonstrate advanced intellectual traits yet have evolved through very different lines of descent and in very different worlds. What can we learn from comparisons of these species about the in-common pressures that may select for intellect? What do differences in intellectual traits reveal about the influences of the differences in biology of the species and the influences of the different ecological worlds inhabited by these species? (Comparing Primates & Cetaceans Symposium; Weds. 11:30 AM - 12:00pm; Sale)

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University of Michigan (hheying@biology.lsa.umich.edu)

Mantella laevigata, a species of poison frog in Madagascar, was investigated in the first field study of Mantella behavior. During 925 hours of focal observation, M. laevigata were observed in 215 male-male fights; 348 extended, stereotyped courtships; and ten incidents of maternal provisioning of single tadpoles with trophic eggs in wells defended by males. Individuals of both sexes scout for oviposition sites before courtships: males discriminate against sites containing predatory crane-fly larvae and heterospecific frogs, females discriminate against sites containing conspecific tadpoles, which cannibalize eggs. Clutch size of one is the lowest known for amphibians. Based on observations of males leaving courtships to engage in agonistic behavior, I hypothesized that females are choosing males based on territory quality rather than on the quality of the males themselves, as assessed through their calls. I conducted an experiment in which females were allowed to choose between recordings of six males, calls of short and long duration, and ten territories including five each of high and low quality. The results suggest that territory quality accounts for a significant amount of variation in female response, but that no other variables measured were a significant source of variation. (John Paul Scott's Founders Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Texas - Austin (lhiggins@mail.utexas.edu)

My research examines the geographical pattern of the mate discrimination trait male calling song between Gryllus rubens and Texas G. integer in populations that are sympatric and allopatric. What happens to mate discrimination traits when two species come back into secondary contact after speciating allopatrically? If two species are interacting, then this interaction could be observed as a change in the geographical pattern of a mate discrimination trait within a species when comparing areas of allopatry to sympatry. Three possible outcomes exist: (1) each species is unaffected by the other in sympatry; there is no intermating and no change in mate discrimination, (2) the two species intermate and successfully hybridize, and mate discrimination traits become more similar due to genetic introgression, and (3) the two species intermate but have reduced hybrid fitness which causes selection for reduced intermating, and mate discrimination traits become more different. I use a multivariate analysis to combine multiple call characters for each male into a single score per male to assess change in all characters simultaneously. Quantification of hybridization, currently underway, will clarify geographical patterns of calling songs. (Evolution of Signals; Tues. 11:45 AM - 12:00pm; NMM1)

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University of California - Irvine (ahile@uci.edu)

The budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) is a promising model species for the study of adult vocal learning. To date, several studies have confirmed the existence of vocal plasticity and, more importantly, rapid imitation of contact calls by adult male budgerigars. Vocal learning has not been investigated in female budgerigars, however. Since one likely function of the contact call is to denote group affiliation, we tested the hypothesis that female budgerigars, when placed into groups, would develop a shared contact call. We recorded the contact call repertoires of eight adult female budgerigars that were unfamiliar with one another, then placed them into two groups. Each group was deprived of visual contact with other birds. Recording sessions continued for the subsequent 8 weeks, and behavioral observations were also conducted during this time. Within 4 - 7 weeks females in both groups converged on a common call type. This rate of convergence is slower than that observed in prior experiments limited to male birds, and much slower than vocal imitation by male budgerigars paired with females. Therefore, while this study documents vocal plasticity in adult female budgerigars, it also suggests that female budgerigars learn new vocalizations more slowly than males do. (Learning Social Signals; Sun. 4:45pm-5:00pm; NMM1)

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Auburn University (ghill@acesag.auburn.edu)

Some models of trait evolution require co-evolution of male display and female preference while others predict the preferences will predate trait expressions or that male display will change in response to resource abundance independent of female preference. We tested for congruence between trait expression and female preference in four taxa of cardueline finches that vary in male color display: two subspecies of the House Finch (with small and large patches of red coloration respectively), the American Goldfinch (with a large patch of yellow coloration) and the Pine Siskin (with a small patch of yellow). Phylogenetic reconstructions indicate that the ancestral condition of all these taxa was extensive red coloration. We found that females of the small-patched subspecies of the house finch preferred the large patches of color typical of the other subspecies. However, we found that female siskins and goldfinches showed a preference for coloration and pattern like that displayed by males in their own species. These observations suggest that while factors such as resource abundance might lead to short-term lags in between female preference and male display, large-scale changes in color display involve correlated change in female preference and male appearance. (Evolution of Signals; Tues. 9:30 AM - 9:45 AM; NMM1)

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University of New Mexico (jahill@unm.edu)

This project addresses the central themes of sexual selection: intersexual selection, intrasexual selection, and the potential benefits to choosy females. The golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus) is an ideal organism for such a study. Golden pheasants are extremely dimorphic, with males possessing a variety of ornamental traits that may be important in sexual selection. Through female mate choice trials and male-male competition trials, I determined those male characteristics important to females when choosing a mate, and to males assessing a potential opponent. I also reared chicks of known parentage to determine if growth rates of chicks are directly affected by a female's choice of mate. Preliminary data suggest that females are choosing mates based on a plumage trait, the length of specialized cape feathers, and that spur length is the best predictor of the outcome of male-male interactions. Limited results from chick growth experiments suggest that the identity of the father does affect chick growth. However, firm conclusions concerning this point await additional data. (Sexual Selection; Sun. 4:45pm-5:00pm; NMM2)

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University of Ulm & University of Missouri - Columbia (hoebelg@missouri.edu)

The green treefrog (Hyla cinerea) and the barking treefrog (Hyla gratiosa) are broadly sympatric species that produce fertile hybrid offspring. However, hybridization is an extremely rare event, which could be due to reproductive character displacement having evolved in sympatry to avoid hybridization. By comparing several sympatric and allopatric populations of H. cinerea, I tested whether the presence of H. gratiosa influenced the evolution of the mate recognition system of H. cinerea. I evaluated the frequency selectivity of females towards male calls with two-choice playback discrimination trials with synthetic calls. Preliminary data revealed that H. cinerea females in sympatry exhibited greater selectivity towards the frequencies of the mating call and a greater strength of preference for the conspecific call. This matches the pattern predicted for reproductive character displacement. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Dalton State College & Zoo Atlanta (mhoff@em.daltonstate.edu)

This paper focuses on the changes in a group of lowland gorillas, Gorilla g. gorilla, at Zoo Atlanta, following the death of the silverback male in Feb., 2000. The group was composed of the silverback male, 4 adult females, 0.3 juveniles and 1.2 infants. Behavioral observations have been made on the group members 2-3 times per week, using focal animal sampling, since it was formed in Oct., 1992. Thirty minute observations were made on the mother-infant pairs; 10 minute observations were made on all other group members. This report focuses on a variety of individual and social behaviors among the gorillas, comparing the last month that the silverback was on display with the group to the first month following his death. Additionally, longitudinal data on the group in the months following his death will be presented. Several classes of behavior showed significant changes in the month following compared to the month preceding his death, including aggressive displays and behaviors, approaches and leaves, spatial relationships, walking, self-grooming and eating. The data will be interpreted in terms of general patterns of social disruption and the control role" of silverback males in gorilla groups. (Social Behavior 2; Tues. 3:45pm-4:00pm; NMM1)

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Stanford University (hans@psych.stanford.edu)

Understanding social behavior depends ultimately on observing many animals simultaneously. However, animals are often studied in isolation or in reduced laboratory settings where only two animals interact in a staged context. Such paradigms make it difficult to know how the presence of conspecifics influences behavior and physiology of individuals. We have begun experiments directed at discovering how individual behavior both regulates and is regulated by the social scene. The complex social behavior of the African cichlid Haplochromis burtoni lends itself to this work for several reasons. In this species, brightly colored males defend territories, chase nonterritorial animals (NTs), and court females, in contrast to cryptically colored NTs which are not reproductive and school together with females. Changing social status causes well-documented changes in reproductive physiology and growth. Using video analysis of a H. burtoni community, we found that some subordinate males adjust their behavior contingent upon the actions of the dominant male. Specifically, these "intermediate" fish perform significantly more aggressive displays while the dominant male is in his shelter or soliciting and courting potential mates than when the dominant male is not so occupied. And even when the dominant fish is attending to the subordinates, their actions do not overlap with his. Animals who switch status also change this contingent behavior showing that it is dependent on social status rather than on individuals. Future experiments will assess the physiological consequences of such contingent behavior. Supported by NIH NS 34950 to RDF. (Dominance & Resource Defense; Tues. 9:30 AM - 9:45 AM; NMM2)

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University of Louisiana at Lafayette (jhucko@rocketmail.com)

The ability of animals to detect and avoid areas containing chemical alarm cues from conspecifics is well documented in aquatic species. The ability to detect chemical alarm cues in terrestrial organisms, until recently has been untested. In this study, I tested the ability of the ravine salamander Plethodon richmondi, to detect and avoid areas containing chemicals released from the autotomized tails of conspecifics and the sympatric zig zag salamander, P. dorsalis. I also collected data to determine if any avoidance response could be attributed to the size or sex of the animal. The results of this study suggest that P. richmondi will avoid substrates containing odors released from the autotomized tails of conspecifics, but not P. dorsalis, and this response occurs independent of the size and/or sex of the animal. (Anti-predator Behavior; Tues. 5:15pm-5:30pm; NMM2)

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University of Missouri (c700291@showme.missouri.edu)

Individuals of different competitive abilities or in certain environmental circumstances adopt different alternative mating tactics as a conditional strategy. Male green treefrogs (Hyla cinerea) primarily produce acoustic signals to attract females; however, satellite males do not produce advertisement calls and attempt to intercept and mate with females attracted to a calling male. In an observational field study, I recorded advertisement calls and body measurements of males adopting calling and satellite mating tactics as a preliminary investigation of the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that lead males to adopt alternative mating tactics. Satellite males were significantly smaller, in significantly poorer condition and produced higher frequency calls (which are less attractive to females) than the calling males they parasitized. Average body size and call frequency were good predictors of the proportion of nights individuals were observed adopting the calling tactic. Interestingly, satellite males parasitized calling males that had lower than average frequency calls. These preliminary results suggest that males adopting the satellite mating tactic are at a competitive disadvantage for obtaining mates using the calling tactic and may maximize their opportunities for mating by parasitizing males more likely to attract females. (John Paul Scott's Founders Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Texas - Austin (phurd@uts.cc.utexas.edu)

The outcome of an aggressive interaction will be influenced by three types of asymmetries between opponents: RHP, motivation and aggressiveness. Theory predicts that these three types of properties should be communicated using different types of signals: conventional, handicapping or performance. Here I report upon system, the green anole, with a large threat display repertoire, in which contests may be arranged such that different asymmetries determine contest outcome. Obvious candidates for conventional and handicapping signals are headbob type and lateral compression. Use of these, and other, signals varies with contestant state, how these patterns support the conventional or handicap signalling hypotheses is discussed. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of North Carolina (jhyman@email.unc.edu)

Recognition of territorial neighbors could benefit a territorial animal by allowing it to avoid territorial contests with neighbors with whom it has previously interacted. Reduced aggression toward established neighbors, known as the dear enemy effect, could result in mutual benefit for neighbors by allowing them to reduce the time and energy spent defending shared territorial boundaries. However, the dear enemy effect might disappear if neighbors and strangers represent similar threats to territory owners. Using playback experiments, I examined neighbors/stranger discrimination (NSD) in Carolina wrens, Thryothorus ludovicianus, in two different social environments: In Spring when territories have been established for several months, and in Fall when first year birds settle new territories, often placing them alongside or even in-between the territories of established older birds. An influx of new birds and new territories might cause formerly established territorial boundaries to become unsettled and increase aggression among established residents. I found that Carolina wrens show NSD in spring, but do not show NSD in fall. This study is one of the first to document a seasonal change in NSD in response to changing social environments. (W.C. Allee Competition; Mon. 11:45 AM - 12:00pm; Sale)

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Polish Academy of Sciences & University of Arizona (piotrjab@neurobio.arizona.edu)

Camouflage is an antipredatory adaptation which exploits predators' perceptual and neural constraints. Traditionally considered predatory counter-adaptations include increased predator abilities to discover cryptic prey due to decrease in search rate or due to formation of a search image. Certain insectivorous birds employ yet another strategy. Some species use flashy pivoting movements of spread tail and wings to make cryptic prey conspicuous by flushing it into the air and chasing it in aerial pursuits. By watching Painted Redstarts (Myioborus pictus) in the field I documented that the attack distance on sitting prey by this flush-pursuer is smaller than the distance between redstart and prey when the prey is flushed to be chased. This suggests that flushing affects the relationship between distance to the prey and prey detectability in a manner similar to the effect of increased prey conspicuousness. Using imitations of foraging redstarts to approach flies in redstart territories I showed that the probability of prey escape depended on the distance between prey and the predator's path of movement, and that this probability increased when approaching models appeared larger, because they imitated redstarts with spread wings and tail. Pivoting body movements also affected prey escape frequency. Search rates of redstarts during foraging with spread tail and wings were higher than during foraging with closed tail and wings suggesting that manipulation of prey into conspicuousness promotes higher search speeds in redstarts by making the prey more easily detectable. Accordingly, redstarts had the highest search rates among members of the guild of insectivorous birds in the Chiricahua Mountains, Arizona. Search and attack rates of several other flush-pursuers are reviewed. (Anti-predator Behavior; Tues. 2:30pm-2:45pm; NMM2)

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University of Kentucky (jkjack2@pop.uky.edu)

Sexually dimorphic color displays concern much sexual selection research. Yet in many species, dimorphism is not as distinct as is assumed. In northwestern Costa Rican convict cichlids (Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum), pre-spawning females develop orange ventral flecks rarely observed in sexually mature males. Fleck number has been correlated with physical condition and fecundity. However, in a laboratory experiment, both males and females displayed flecks. Three convict cichlids were placed in four 10 foot diameter tanks. Weights, lengths, and color characteristics (fleck numbers and reflectances) were measured beforehand. Fish were videotaped for 10 minutes every third day until they mated. After mating, the fish were removed and measurements were repeated. Behavioral data were collected from the videotapes. Fleck numbers were higher (p=0.027) and flecks were brighter (p=0.017) in mated than in unmated fish. Aggressive behaviors did not differ. Color has been approached as a female trait in this species. However, if both sexes can display the color pattern and it correlates with mating success then why does it predominate in females? In many animals females show traits that are considered male attributes. Current debates consider whether such displays are selected in females or are a result of genetic correlations. (Mating & Reproductive Success; Mon. 4:30pm-4:45pm; NMM1)

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University of Dayton (jawor@neelix.udayton.edu)

Female ornamentation and its correlation with measures of individual quality have only recently been investigated in birds. Previous research on this population of Northern Cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis) found that more ornamented females [brighter red underwing coverts] provisioned nestlings at higher rates than less ornamented females (Linville et al. 1998 Anim. Behav. 55:119). This study tests for correlations between measures of individual quality in female cardinals and a suite of five visual ornaments. A pilot study in 1999 indicated that underwing covert brightness was associated with a more conspicuous black face mask which, in turn, was correlated with two measures of physical condition. Data will be reported from the 2000 breeding season. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Nebraska

The evolution on man's own line is well understood from man to ape to monkey to lemur to mammal-like reptile to primitive reptile to amphibian to jawed fish to petromyzont jawless fish to myxinoid jawless fish. Beyond the jawless fish man's earlier ancestry becomes controversial and unclear. Generally accepted ideas derive jawless fish from acraniate chordates which lack most head structures relevant to behavior (eyes, labyrinths, nose, taste buds, hollow brain). These views do not give a satisfying evolutionary explanation for the vertebrate head and also do not relate these acraniates to the invertebrate protostomes. An alternative view has been expressed in a series of papers and abstracts published from 1960 to 2000; this point of view derives primitive vertebrates from a series of invertebrates in which head structures typical of vertebrates are slowly evolved, apparently to improve the predatory abilities of organisms in that line. Earlier probable ancestors of jawless fish include, in order, hoplonemertean, heteronemertean, paleonemertean, rhabdocoel, acoel, ciliate, hypermastigophoran, and flagellate. These forms are represented by a series of Behavioral Bauplans (diagrams of body-plans, with emphasis on behaviorally relevant features). (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Northern Colorado (Delphi875@aol.com)

Primary goals of this study were to quantitatively describe bugle calls of male Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) during the breeding season and determine if individual bulls could be identified based on signature characteristics of bugles. Relationships between age, harem size and measured bugle characteristics were also investigated. Analyses of 144 calls from 14 bulls indicate that bulls exhibit unique signature characteristics in 5 of the 7 measured bugle components including the peak power of: total call, low whistle A, low whistle B, medium whistle A, and high whistle A (P < 0.01, all cases). Harem size and peak power of: low whistle A, medium whistle B, high whistle A and high whistle B exhibited positive correlations (P < 0.05, all cases). A negative correlation was exhibited between harem size and peak power of total call (P < 0.01). Rack size, indicating age, and peak power of: low whistle A, low whistle B, medium whistle A, medium whistle B, high whistle A and high whistle B exhibited positive correlations (P < 0.01, all cases). Also, qualitative analyses indicate there are individual differences in the overall form or shape of the different bulls' bugles. (Recognition & Mate Choice; Tues. 1:45pm-2:00pm; NMM1)

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University of Kentucky (jcjohn4@pop.uky.edu)

I manipulated juvenile and adult food availability in the fishing spider, Dolomedes triton in order to test two hypotheses for sexual cannibalism. The adaptive foraging hypothesis posits that sexual cannibalism is an economic foraging strategy on the part of the adult female. In contrast, the aggressive-spillover hypothesis suggests that pre-copulatory sexual cannibalism is misplaced aggression favored in previous life-history phases. Marginal support was found for the foraging hypothesis. While there was a trend for adult food availability to relate positively to fecundity, mating trials revealed that female mating behavior (attack or mate) was not determined by the adaptive value a male represents (food item or sperm donor). More specifically, likelihood of attack was not a product of male size, male availability or female nutrient load. The aggressive spillover hypothesis was supported by several findings. Juvenile food availability had a positive effect on fixed female size which, in turn, had a positive effect on fecundity. Thus, the spillover hypothesis' assertion that strong fecundity selection acts on juvenile feeding and fixed adult size was supported. Finally, females consuming at least one male did not benefit in terms of an increased number of offspring, but did increase their chances of hatching an egg sac. (Mate Choice 2; Sun. 3:15pm-3:30pm; NMM2)

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University of Georgia (Johnsone@egon.psy.uga.edu)

Three experiments were designed to investigate food neophobia in semi-free ranging (N=240) and corral-housed (N=60) rhesus macaques. It was hypothesized that food neophobia results from a learning history of conditioned taste aversions (CTA) with novel foods. The observer recorded how long subjects manipulated test food, the frequency of sniffs, and whether food was dropped or eaten in a number of experimental conditions. Food neophobia increased predictably in semi-free ranging macaques with increasing food novelty. As expected, this pattern was not observed in corral-housed animals. Macaques as young as one-year old exhibited food neophobia. This result does not support the CTA hypothesis, however, studies with younger infants are warranted. Pilot data on six-month old animals indicate that social cues from group members may influence infants' behavior toward novel food. (Animal Learning & Cognition; Tues. 10:15 AM - 10:30 AM; Sale)

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Emory University & University of Chicago (tjovano@emory.edu)

This study investigated the development of maternal recognition of infant calls in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Specifically, we investigated how early during the postpartum period rhesus mothers can vocally recognize their offspring. Fifteen mothers and their offspring, of age ranging from several hours to 28 days, served as subjects of an experiment in which the offspring's distress vocalizations were recorded and then played back to their mothers simultaneously with those of an age-matched control infant. The proportion of time looking at, but not the proportion of orientations to the speaker playing the offspring's vocalizations increased significantly as a function of infant age. Specifically, mothers of infants older than one week of age looked at the speaker playing their own infant’s calls longer than at the control speaker; mothers of younger infants, however, did not show a preference for the speaker playing their own infants’ calls. These findings provide the first evidence that in macaques maternal recognition of infants develops between the first and second week of the infant’s life and support the hypothesis that mothers need to be exposed to their infants’ calls in order to recognize their infants by their vocal cues. (Parental Care 2; Sun. 1:45pm-2:00pm; NMM1)

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University of Guelph (kevinjudge@yahoo.com)

Chorus tenure is the number of nights that a male anuran spends attending choruses, and dominant tenure is the number of nights that he adopts a dominant (i.e. territorial) mating tactic. While male bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana) that have longer tenure (chorus tenure and dominant tenure) acquire more mates, tenure is believed to be energetically costly. We tested the hypothesis that tenure of bullfrogs is energy-constrained by conducting a feeding experiment to manipulate energetic condition, and by measuring each male's body condition on every night of chorus tenure. Male bullfrogs with longer tenure, other things being equal, were in better initial condition, poorer final condition and were more energetically efficient than males with shorter tenure. Also, fed males attended choruses longer than unfed males. However, males that temporarily left chorusing did not return in better condition than when they left. The energetic constraint hypothesis adequately explained abbreviated chorus tenure and there is evidence that sexual selection by endurance rivalry favoured increased energetic efficiency by male bullfrogs. (Mate Choice 1; Sun. 11:00 AM - 11:15 AM; NMM2)

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East Carolina University(justicem@mail.ecu.edu)

Birds show interspecific variability in perch orientation with respect to the sun. One possible explanation for this variability is that perch orientation interacts with color pattern and shadow contrasts to produce conspicuousness or crypsis. If so, orientation might be related to communication. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between perch orientation (facing sun, perpendicular to the sun, or facing away from the sun) and communicative behaviors. Focal-animal samples were conducted on European Starlings and Mourning Doves, neither of which show an orientation preference, as well as Northern Mockingbirds, which strongly prefer to face the sun, especially while singing. Perch orientation was not related to conspecific approaches in European Starlings, which are uniformly glossy black. Perch orientation was also not related to emigration and immigration in loose flocks of Mourning Doves, which are weakly countershaded. Northern Mockingbirds, in contrast, are strongly countershaded. Their territorial flights decreased as the amount of time spent facing the sun increased. It is possible that, in general, strong orientation preferences are most likely to be observed in strongly countershaded species, because they are best able to use their color pattern in regulating conspicuousness. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Chowan College - NC (justit@chowan.edu)

Previous studies have investigated the effects of female size and ventral coloration on mate choice in male convict cichlids. The purpose of the present investigation was to examine the effect of overall darkness of females on mate selection. Convict cichlids are gray with black vertical stripes. The gray area between the stripes can be light or dark. When the gray area is dark, the overall appearance of the fish is dark. Twenty males were presented two females, one female appeared light and the other female appeared dark. The females were placed into clear containers and placed on opposite ends of a tank housing a male. Blinds were used to prevent the females from seeing one another. The fish were housed together for approximately 24 hours before observation. An observer recorded the amount of time the male spent with each female for a thirty-minute period. The males spent an average of 12.29 minutes with the dark colored females and an average of 13.21 minutes with the light colored females. The amount of time the males spent with the dark females did not differ from the amount of time the males spent with the light females (t=0.23, p=0.823). (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Boston University (imkaatz@mindspring.com)

Males of the Neotropical catfish Corydoras paleatus are known to produce agonistic and courtship stridulation sounds when reproductively active. We observed behavior during sound production for five species in aquaria using a hydrophone (BioAcoustics Inc.), Panasonic VHS recorded (professional/industrial model AG-180, frequency response 100-8,000 Hz) and used the software package SIGNAL (Engineering System Inc.) to determine pulse number and frequency range. A total of 293 sounds were analyzed. Sounds were grouped as one of four types based on the behavioral context in which they occurred: 1) courtship, 2)agonistic chase, 3)agonistic pre-chase and 4) startle. Pre-chase sounds were shortest and lowest in frequency. All other sounds were broad range in frequency (800-8,000 Hz). Chase sounds ahd fewer pulses than courtship and startle sounds. The number of one hour samples which included sound production was significantly higher for reproductive (63% of 81 one hour samples) than non-reproductive (22% of 171) fishes. The results suggest that: 1) Corydoras catfishes produce sounds in four different behavioral contexts; and 2) acoustic activity was low for non-reproductive fishes and significantly higher for the same individuals when reproductive. (Communication 2; Weds. 1:30pm-1:45pm; NMM1)

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Michigan State University (karsonmi@pilot.msu.edu)

Cuttlefish (Cephalopoda: Molluska), like octopuses, are benthic predators, but show several differences in life history that could impact on learning abilities. Most notably, cuttlefish rely on crypsis for defense and ambush prey rather than taking refuge in home dens when not out on opportunistic foraging trips. Spatial learning in cuttlefish was evaluated using escape mazes in the form of a runway, a T-maze, a vertical barrier maze and a circular maze. Time to escape each maze improved with repeated trials. Twenty-two cuttlefish were trained on a serial reversal problem (alternating which of two exits was open), using the circular maze. Cuttlefish showed a decrease in the number of trials per reversal, a decrease in the mean escape time per reversal, and an increase in the percentage of successful trials per reversal. Taken together, experiments provide good evidence for spatial learning in these benthic invertebrates. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Georgia (yongkyu@arches.uga.edu)

In a series of investigations into development of discriminatory behavior in Drosophila paulistorum (Kim et al., 1992, Behav. Genet. 22:545-556; Kim et al., 1996a & b therein), it has been demonstrated that discriminatory abilities were reduced when individuals were totally isolated from their consemispecifics: the earlier the developmental stage at which isolation was initiated, the more frequent were the heterogamic matings that produced sterile progeny. In contrast, discriminatory abilities significantly increased when two intersterile semispecies were brought together in an artificially sympatric setting. As an attempt to study Drosophila kin recognition, I tested the Westermarck hypothesis (1922) while observing courtship and mating behavior of the D. paulistorum raised in the following treatments: 1) siblings raised together communally (SRTC); 2) siblings raised apart communally (SRAC); 3) non-siblings raised together communally (NSRTC); and 4)non-siblings raised apart communally (NSRAC). My data show that when siblings were raised together, courtship and mating activities were significantly reduced between them: NSRAC > SRAC > NSRTC > SRTC (p<0.0001). When given mate choice between SRTC and NSRAC, they significantly preferred to mate with NSRAC. These results suggest that early social experience reduce sexual attraction between siblings later and SRTC avoid the deleterious effects of inbreeding. (Learning Social Signals; Sun. 5:30pm-5:45pm; NMM1)

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Smithsonian Institute & National Zoo (dkleiman@nzp.si.edu)

We will review reintroduction programs for endangered species of birds and mammals involving pre- and post- release training in foraging and feeding, locomotor, orientation and navigation, anti-predator and species-specific social skills. We will discuss the best age groups for training and release; what type of training has been accomplished and in which behaviors; how the training has been conducted; and how much.and how long training has continued. We will discuss the impact of training on survivorship after release as well as observed changes in behavior not accompanied by increased survivorship. We will present data on the lack of effect of training on golden lion tamarin survival after release. (Applied Animal Behavior Symposium; Tues. 4:45pm-5:15pm; Sale)

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The New Guinea Singing (Wild) Dog [NGSD] (Canis hallstromi) is a distinctive form of wild dingo from the New Guinea Highlands. The behavior of NGSDs has never been studied in the native habitat. This paper describes behaviors of captive NGSDs observed over a ten-year period. NGSDs demonstrated nearly all types of behavior noted by other researchers for Canis. However, their behavior often had a lower threshold, a developmentally earlier appearance, or a quantitative difference compared to wolves (Canis lupus) and domestic dogs (Canis familiaris). In addition, NGSDs show seventeen behaviors that appear to be unique to this canid. Among these behaviors are: the head toss solicitation; cheek rub; copulation contractions; genitally-oriented bite; tooth gnashing during controlled aggression; and several vocalizations. The "open mouth bite" frequently used by NGSDs in play has been observed in coyotes but not reported for wolves or domestic dogs. This surprisingly high frequency of novel behaviors suggests a possible taxonomic uniqueness for this canid – a conclusion that is now also being supported by non-behavioral data. (Social Behavior 2; Tues. 5:00pm-5:15pm; NMM1)

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University of California - Riverside (gitak@citrus.ucr.edu)

The Australian field cricket Teleogryllus oceanicus sings conspicuously to attract females, but in Hawaii the song also attracts the parasitoid fly Ormia ochracea. To date there has been no direct demonstration that cricket song is influenced by conflicting selection pressures imposed by potential mates and flies. I showed that infested male crickets had reduced calling and spermatophore production compared with unparasitised controls, suggesting that the fly is an important selective agent for crickets. In field studies, calling activity was repeatable and predicted female cricket attraction. Nonetheless, males co-occurring with the fly called less than males not subject to flies, suggesting that calling is reduced in response to fly selection. However, cricket calling and fly searching both peaked at dusk, possibly because altering the timing reduces female cricket attraction. Previous studies suggested that flies prefer certain temporal elements of T. oceanicus song. I conducted song broadcast experiments showing that flies and female crickets had convergent preferences for temporal song structure. These results suggest that cricket song in Hawaii has evolved under the conflict between sexual and natural selection. (W.C. Allee Competition; Mon. 1:30pm-1:45pm; Sale)

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College of Notre Dame of Maryland (nkreiter@ndm.edu)

Female fishing spiders cannibalize males both in the field and laboratory. However, cannibalism of a potential mate may also limit fertilization opportunities. We investigated how decreasing opportunity for fertilization influences cannibalism of males by female Dolomedes triton. We tested two hypothesis: 1) sexual cannibalism decreases as female age increases and sperm acquisition becomes less likely and 2) prior mating increases the probability of male cannibalism. We introduced females of different ages as juveniles (ages 25 to 1 day pre-molt) and virgin and mated adults (ages 1 to 35 days post-molt) to males in the laboratory. Males exhibited courtship behaviors with virgin and mated adults, but not juveniles. Copulation occurred in 50% of trials with virgin females; only 1 mated female (4%) copulated a second time. Fewer trials with juveniles (13%) and virgin females (13%) resulted in cannibalism than trials with mated females (43%). Virgin females older than 14 days post-molt never cannibalized, but mated females continued to cannibalize at all ages. Our results indicate that female D. triton do not cannibalize indiscriminately. Reproductive status, previous sperm acquisition, and fertilization opportunities may all be important factors in determining whether female fishing spiders cannibalize their male suitors. (Mating & Reproductive Success; Mon. 5:30pm-5:45pm; NMM1)

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Murray State University (jill.kruper@murraystate.edu)

I tested the effects of different types of food restriction on the attractiveness of male odors during female odor and nesting/mate preference tests in wild house mice (Mus musculus). In addition, I tested whether food restriction of males affected their levels of testosterone and prolactin. Female house mice were tested with pairs of males consisting of: 1) control male fed ad libitum, 2) gestation food-restricted male, or 3) postwean food-restricted male. Control mice had significantly elevated levels of testosterone compared with postwean food-restricted males. The attractiveness of male odors to females was positively correlated with male testosterone level in trials comparing control and post-wean food-restricted males. Despite the correlation between testosterone level and attractiveness of male odors, there was no significant relationship between male testosterone or prolactin level and female nesting preferences. These data indicate that testosterone level influences the attractiveness of male odors to females, but attractiveness of male odors is not indicative of female nesting preferences. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Akron (kcaroly@uakron.edu)

The objective for this study was to establish a behavioral baseline for the black-and-white ruffed lemur, Varecia variegata variegata, reintroduction project of captive-born black-and-white ruffed lemurs during their prerelease training for future comparison to behaviors after release into the Betampona reserve in Madgascar. Three separate groups totaling 10 individuals were studied in the Natural Forest Enclosures "boot-camp" at the Duke University Primate Center from spring through fall of 1997, 1998, and 1999. The 1999 study group included a male infant. Unique body markings and colored collars identified the individual lemurs. Daily observations and written recording of all behaviors were made from 0700 to 1900 hours. Differences among the groups in time spent foraging, travelling, in intraspecific and interspecific interactions, and in level of canopy occupied will be discussed. As of January 2000, nine captive-born lemurs have been released into the Betampona Reserve with six still surviving. One male has been seen with a wild mate and one female has given birth to triplets. Effects of prerelease training will be determined after the final group is released in Fall 2000. (John Paul Scott's Founders Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of California - Berkeley (ealacey@socrates.berkeley.edu)

The genes of the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) are associated with recognition of and response to pathogens. Increased exposure to pathogens represents a potential cost of group living, suggesting that, all else being equal, MHC variation should be greater in social than in solitary species. Our ongoing studies of solitary and social tuco-tucos provide an ideal opportunity to test this hypothesis. Non-destructive tissue samples were collected from 35 Ctenomys sociabilis and 35 Ctenomys haigi resident in a single population of each species. Analyses of 18 microsatellite loci indicated that both polymorphism and heterozygosity were consistently greater in the solitary C. haigi than in the group-living C. sociabilis. In contrast, analyses of a 230-bp portion of the MHC corresponding to exon 2 of the human DQ Beta locus revealed similar levels of polymorphism and heterozygosity across species. This relative difference in variability at microsatellite and MHC loci suggests that selection on the DQ Beta ortholog is greater in C. sociabilis than in C. haigi. These findings have intriguing implications for the role of group living in the generation and maintenance of diversity at MHC loci. (Immune Systems & Behavior; Weds. 2:45pm-3:00pm; NMM2)

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University of Oregon (lacyke@darkwing.uoregon.edu)

With the establishment of eco-tourism, human disturbance such as incidental feeding has created many small, dense populations of animals. In this study, we consider the consequences of this sort of crowding on the behavior and social structure of an endangered species. Specifically, we used focal animal samples and census techniques to collect data on the aggressive behavior of six populations of the Cuban rock iguana, Cyclura nubila in the field. Three of these populations are subject to considerable human presence, whereas three are in relatively undisturbed areas. As expected, provisioned populations were more densely packed with more males and females sharing a smaller amount of space. These animals exhibited even more aggressive behavior than expected when taking into account the larger number of interacting animals. Ramifications of these recent changes on inter-population communication and the survival of an endangered species are discussed. (Social Behavior 1; Mon. 4:45pm-5:00pm; NMM2)

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University of Michigan (lahtid@umich.edu)

African village weaverbirds (Ploceus cucullatus) are commonly subject to brood parasitism by the egg-mimicking diederick cuckoo (Chrysococcyx caprius). However, village weaverbird females lay eggs which vary widely in appearance among individuals, but are consistent within an individual over her lifetime. As the first stage of an ongoing study of the evolution of egg rejection behavior, we experimentally tested the ability of nesting village weaverbirds in The Gambia to reject foreign eggs that exhibit continuous variation in color and maculation. During July-August 1999, we placed village weaverbird eggs into active nests at or near the host's laying period, and compared odds of rejection to the difference in appearance between introduced and host eggs. Foreign eggs were rejected in proportion to the difference in both color (P<0.0001, N=92) and maculation (P<0.0001, N=70). Moreover, rejection ability was not aided by the presence of a host egg in the nest that would provide a self-reference. Village weaverbirds in West Africa can recognize and reject even slightly dissimilar foreign eggs, which would aid in the deterrence of brood parasitism by a cuckoo with egg-mimicry. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Louisville (jlamanna@louisville.edu)

Many species use landmarks to define territorial boundaries. This laboratory study examined the use of territorial landmarks in a cichlid fish, the blockhead (Steatocranus casuarius). First, blockheads were paired in 10-gallon aquaria. Then two established pairs were introduced into a 29-gallon aquarium but were separated from each other by two opaque dividers placed 5cm on either side of the tank's center. After acclimation we removed the dividers and recorded the blockheads' behavior as the two pairs attempted to establish territorial boundaries. In experimental trials, we placed a line of large, flat rocks across the center of the tank; there was no landmark in control trials. A total of 15 trials were run. Pairs in experimental trials used the line of rocks as their territorial border. These fish had significantly fewer aggressive interactions than did fish with no landmarks, and their interactions were significantly shorter and of lower intensity. Thus, the presence of landmarks at territorial borders reduced the costs of territorial defense; this reduction in costs is a selective advantage that could evolutionarily favor the use of landmarks. (Dominance & Resource Defense; Tues. 10:30 AM - 10:45 AM; NMM2)

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Laboratory of Comparative Ethology/ NICHD (LawlerT@mail.nih.gov)

Affiliative interactions are reported to occur frequently among members of common marmoset (Callithrix j. jacchus) families. Few studies have examined affiliation among family members other than the breeding pair. The present study examined interactions within eight common marmoset families and quantified the types of affiliation shown. Family groups were observed weekly in thirty-minute ad libitum focal sessions. Frequency and duration of lateral contact, infant carrying and frequency of allogrooming were observed. Initiators and recipients of contact were recorded. Mothers and fathers showed the highest frequency of lateral contact and allogrooming. Fathers were most often initiators of contact. Frequency of lateral contact initiated by both parents towards infants (< 5 months old) was similar. Duration of lateral contact was longest during mother-infant contact exclusive of infant-carrying. Fathers groomed and carried infants significantly more than did mothers and subadults. Infants initiated longer and more frequent lateral contact with fathers than with other group members. Subadults participated in affiliative interactions significantly less often than parents and infants. The results of this study indicate that marmoset parents focus affiliative behavior toward their infants and mates, reducing their efforts toward subadults. These results provide valuable descriptive data regarding affiliative behavior of primate nuclear families. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Washington University in St. Louis (mleal@biology.wustl.edu)

Current theory on the evolution of pursuit deterrent signals predicts that differences between sympatric species in the use of this escape tactic is correlated with differences in prey’s ability to escape an attack. I tested this prediction by comparing the antipredator responses given by two sympatric species of lizards, Anolis cristatellus and A. gundlachi, during staged predatory encounters under natural conditions. Results demonstrated that A. cristatellus and A. gundlachi employ different escape tactics. Anolis cristatellus employed pushups in accordance with the pursuit deterrent signals hypothesis, whereas A. gundlachi exhibited flight. Furthermore, A. cristatellus has a significantly higher physiological capacity than A. gundlachi, measured as endurance capacity. Because endurance capacity can be a critical aspect limiting the ability of anoles to escape a predatory attack, the results support the prediction that interspecific differences in physiological capacity can lead to interspecific differences in the use of pursuit deterrent signals. (Anti-predator Behavior; Tues. 4:00pm-4:15pm; NMM2)

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University of Memphis (dnlee@memphis.edu)

Terrestrial mammals use scent marks to convey information about their reproductive state to conspecifics. In this study, we tested two hypotheses. First, the reproductive state of females affected the types of scent marks they deposit. Second, males exposed to scent marks of females in different reproductive states or no odors deposit similar types and amounts of scents. Scent donors were postpartum estrus (PPE), behavioral estrus (BE), or ovariectomized (OVX) female meadow voles, Microtus pennsylvanicus. To test the first hypothesis, we counted the number and type of scent marks (feces, urine, anogenital marks) deposited by PPE, BE, or OVX females. To test the second hypothesis, we counted the number of scent marks deposited by male meadow voles exposed to scent marks of females in different reproductive state or no odors. PPE, BE, and OVX females deposited significantly more feces marks than urine marks or anogential marks. Additionally, PPE females deposited more fecal and urine marks than BE or OVX females. Males deposited more urine marks than fecal marks or anogenital marks independently of the reproductive condition of the female scent donor. The two hypotheses were supported. Females and males use different sources of scent to convey information about reproductive state. (Mechanisms of Behavior; Mon. 11:00 AM - 11:15 AM; NMM1)

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University of Southern Mississippi (aimeelee@netdoor.com)

In nature, the distribution of three-lined salamanders, (Eurycea guttolineata), often overlap with fishing spiders, (Dolomedes vittatus); however, these arthropods are known to prey on a wide variety of small vertebrates, including salamanders. We examined whether fishing spiders prey on salamanders and the behavioral responses of salamanders to these potential predators. We also asked whether spiders behaved differently to salamanders of different sizes. In laboratory trials, we observed each of 18 spiders in three separate treatments (with a small, large, and a surrogate salamander). We predicted that, if spiders prey on salamanders, they should discriminate between a surrogate and a live salamander. Moreover, if salamanders recognize spiders as potential predators, they should minimize contact with spiders. Spiders significantly increased their activity in response to live salamanders (compared to surrogates). Small salamanders moved away from spiders more frequently than did large salamanders. Our results suggest the potential for a predator-prey interaction between these two species in nature. (Predator/Prey; Mon. 2:30pm-2:45pm; NMM2)

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University of Nebraska (dleger1@unl.edu)

The flycatchers, like other suboscine birds, are thought to develop their songs without the necessity of individual learning experience. Therefore, the existence of geographic variation in songs of these birds would indicate either that learning is involved, or that genetic divergence of populations has occurred. Evidence is presented that significant geographic variation in song exists in the Ochre-bellied Flycatcher (Mionectes oleagineus), a neotropical rainforest lek-breeding species. At least three song forms occur from southern Mexico through Amazonia. However, birds throughout this range sing using the same song organization, alternating between two note types with eventual variety. The song types differ among locations to about the same degree as the songs of other flycatcher species that have been split into distinct species on the basis of song. Thus, the Ochre-bellied Flycatcher may best be regarded as a species group. (Evolution of Signals; Tues. 11:15 AM - 11:30 AM; NMM1)

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University of Georgia (kleighty@arches.uga.edu)

Twinning in tufted capuchins is reported to be quite rare, but an intensive investigation of twinning in this species has not been conducted. We examined the birthrate of twins in four captive colonies of tufted capuchins from 1985 to 1999 and observed 10 sets of twins out of 425 total pregnancies (2.4%). Rates of twinning were comparable to that seen in humans (2.6%). Twins place a high level of nutritional stress on the primate mother and therefore it has been hypothesized that the frequency of twinning should be low and twin mortality should be high during the nursing period for species that typically do not twin. This is not the case in captive capuchins. It appears that the highest mortality for twin capuchins occurs perinatally and at a level greater than that of singletons. From the second day until the end of the first month of life, mortality rates for twins and singletons are equivalent. In addition, we found that weights of twins do not differ significantly from singletons at any time during the first year of life, suggesting that in captivity the mother can provide adequate nutrition for two infants. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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University of Memphis (sleonard@memphis.edu)

Scent over-marking occurs when an animal places its scent mark directly on top of another individual's scent mark. Typically, a preference for the mark of the top-scent donor is shown over that of the bottom-scent donor. Situations, however, may arise in which the top-scent donor is a lower quality individual relative to the bottom-scent donor. How should animals respond to such an over-mark? Do they prefer the odour of the top-scent donor, independent of its quality, or do they prefer the higher quality scent donor even if it may be the bottom-scent donor? Using gonadal hormone status as an indicator of donor scent quality, we tested the hypothesis that adult meadow voles preferentially respond to a higher quality donor (gonadectomized and appropriate sex steroid replacement) over a lower quality donor (gondadectomized and no sex steroid replacement), independent of the position of the scent marks in an over-mark. Overall, our findings suggest that male and female meadow voles differ in how they respond to an over-mark of two scent donors that differ in quality. Males appear to use the quality of the female scent donor, not its position in an over-mark. Females, on the other hand, appear to use position of the male scent donor, not its quality. (Mechanisms of Behavior; Mon. 10:45 AM - 11:00 AM; NMM1)

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National University of Singapore (dbslidq@nus.edu.sg)

Many spiders build conspicuous decorations or stabilimenta on their webs. The stabilimenta of many species reflect UV light, suggesting that they may function in attraction of prey. At the same time, these highly visible structures could also attract predators to the webs. In the present study, we used choice experiment to investigate if stabilimenta of the St. Andrew Cross spider, Argiope veriscolor, attract predators, and used learning experiment to examine if A. versicolor defend the predator through varying the form and/or quantity of stabilimenta. We found that Portia, spider-eating jumping spider (Araneae: Salticidae), preferred webs with stabilimentum to webs without stabilimentum. When given a choice between the same type of webs but under different light intensities, Portia chose the webs in the light first, more often than in the dark. Our findings suggest that stabilimenta serve as predator attractants. We also showed that via operant conditioning on predators, Portia learnt to associate the form of stabilimentum with food. Therefore, by continuously varying the form and frequency of the stabilimenta, A. versicolor reduces its chances of becoming the web-invading predator's meal. (Predator/Prey; Mon. 2:15pm-2:30pm; NMM2)

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University of California - Los Angeles (aliebert@ucla.edu)

Polistes paper wasp females can build nests singly or in small groups called foundress associations. In these nesting groups, all females are potential egg-layers, yet a linear dominance hierarchy forms which results in a skewed distribution of reproduction. In the reproductive skew model of Reeve & Ratnieks (1993), a low degree of sharing of reproduction among foundresses is expected to result in greater risky task specialization by subordinates. In this study, I test this prediction by examining activity timebudgets of solitary females and females of different ranks within foundress groups of P. apachus, and comparing the foraging rates of subordinate foundresses with their share of reproduction on the nest. The results show that subordinates forage at higher rates than solitary foundresses and do almost all of the foraging on multifoundress nests, but their rates of performance of foraging trips are variable and there is no clear specialization on specific foraging items. Subordinates with the least reproduction on the nest did the most foraging, as expected from optimal skew models which predict that losers of colony competition will do the most risky work. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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Tulane University (clinn@mailhost.tcs.tulane.edu)

The golden orb-weaving spider, Nephila clavipes, has been intensively studied in terms of courtship and copulation, as have many spider species. It is accepted that larger males have an advantage in struggles to mate with females. There is considerable variability in male size however, and all males are many times smaller than females. Proposed explanations for sexual size dimorphism have included female fecundity selection, selection for early maturation by males, and selective cannibalism by females. The movement of males to find females is relatively unstudied with regard to size. I investigated the role of male size in movement to find females. Field observations as well as capture and release experiments demonstrated that smaller males travel further distances in shorter periods of time. Furthermore, smaller males are more likely to find their way to female webs than larger males. During instances when more than one male reached a single female, larger males nearly always positioned closest to the female, corroborating previous research. Cannibalism by females was rarely observed and did not appear to be related to male size. Differential male size therefore appears to be a critical aspect of the reproductive success of males required to travel vast distances to reach females. (Mating & Reproductive Success; Mon. 5:00pm-5:15pm; NMM1)

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University of Massachusetts (wliu@bio.umass.edu)

How do social factors influence the singing behaviors of songbirds? To explore this question, I conducted a series of removal experiments from nine territorial clusters of chipping sparrows Spizella passerina and observed how the presence or absence of neighboring males or changes in pairing status affected the focal male's singing behaviors at different times of the day. I found that, after removing a territorial male's neighbor (n=9), the new solitary male, whether paired or unpaired, soon reduced (n=6) or stopped (n=3) his dawn chorus, yet did not change his singing pattern during the daytime. Following the release of a male's neighbor, all of these focal males immediately resumed their dawn chorus. On the other hand, after removing a male's mate, these experimentally-widowed males (n=3) did not seem to alter their singing pattern at dawn, yet did resume their daytime singing and sing like unpaired males. These results, which are consistent with my previous field observations, suggest that dawn song and daytime song of chipping sparrows represent different signal values. Dawn song appears to function primarily for interactions between neighboring birds, whereas the daytime song appears to function primarily as a long distance territorial advertisement to females. (W.C. Allee Competition; Mon. 1:45pm-2:00pm; Sale)

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Valdosta State University (jloughry@valdosta.edu)

We caught and marked 146 juvenile nine-banded armadillos at a study site in northern Florida during 7 field seasons between 1992 and 1999. Of these, 22 of 69 males and 17 of 77 females were recaptured in a subsequent field season. In 5 cases, multiple members of male litters were recruited (3 groups of 2 siblings, 2 groups of 3 siblings), but we recorded only 1 instance of female littermate recruitment (1 group of 2). GPS data on distances moved by individuals from where they were found as juveniles to where they became established as adults revealed no differences between males and females, indicating no sex differences in within-population dispersal distances. In cases where more than one littermate was recruited into the population, siblings were significantly more widely dispersed as adults than they were as juveniles, thus limiting opportunities for interaction among clonal siblings (armadillos give birth to litters of genetically identical quadruplets). We could find no differences in attributes of juveniles recruited into the population versus those not recruited, suggesting that natal philopatry may be relatively random for juveniles in this population. (General Poster Session; Tues. evening; Archer Hall Gym)

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National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis (luttbeg@nceas.ucsb.edu)

Alternative models have been proposed for how females choose a mate. Two of the simplest models are thresholds, where females mate with the first male that exceeds a threshold, and best-of-n, where females assess a fixed number of males and mate with the best of those males. Janetos (1980) concluded that the best-of-n model produces the higher average female fitness than a threshold model when there are no sampling costs. Real (1990) concluded a fixed threshold model produces higher average fitness than a best-of-n model when sampling costs are not trivial and assuming that the population of males is infinite. These conclusions have led to the belief that if sampling costs exist then females will use thresholds, rather than best-of-n rules, and that sampling costs and the optimality of mate choice rules are tightly linked. Using simulations, I show that the best-of-n model produces higher average fitness than the threshold model despite significant sampling costs, when time for choosing a mate is limited, when the pool of available males is small, or when female estimates of the distribution of male quality are error-prone. I discuss how these findings affect the conclusions of previous studies. (Mate Choice 1; Sun. 10:30 AM - 10:45 AM; NMM2)

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